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BIOLOGY 


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THE 


ANIMAL  KINGDOM, 


ARRANGED  IN  CONFORMITY  WITH  ITS  ORGANIZATION. 


BY  THE  BARON  CUVIER, 

PERPKTUAL  SECRETARY  TO  THE  ROYAL  ACADEMY  OF  SCIENCES,   ETC.  ETC.  ETC. 


TRANSLATED  FROM  THE  FRENCH, 
^ND  ABRIDGED 

FOR  THE  USE  OF  SCHOOLS,  &c. 
BY   H.   M'MURTRIE,   M.D.    &c.    &c. 


NEW  YORK: 
G.    &   C.    &   H.    CARVILL. 

MDCCCXXXII.        '-iK 


Entered  according  to  the  act  of  congress,  ia  the  year  1831,  by  G.  &  C.  &  H. 
Carvill,  in  the  clerk's  office  of  the  southern  district  of  New  York. 


Philadelphia : 

Printed  by  James  Kay,  Jun.  &  Co. 

Printers  to  the  American  Philosophical  Society. 

No.  4,  Minor  Street, 


^^x 


TO 


TEACHERS  OF  YOUTH 

IN 

THE   UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA, 

FOR  THE  USE  OF  THEIR  PUPILS, 

IS   MOST  RESPECTFULLY  INSCRIBED, 

IN  THE  FIRM  BELIEF 

THAT  WHILE  IT  WILL  BE  FOUND  TO  AMUSE,  AS  WELL  AS  INSTRUCT, 

TO  INVIGORATE  THE  MEMORY,  EXERCISE  THE  JUDGMENT,  AND 

BRING  ALL  THE  INTELLECTUAL  FACULTIES  INTO  A  STATE 

OF  THE  GREATEST  ACTIVITY,  IT  WILL  ALSO  TEND  TO 

PRODUCE    THAT    ELEVATION    OF     CHARACTER 

WHICH  INEVITABLY  RESULTS 

FROM 

THE   STUDY   OF   NATURE. 


Digitized  by  tine  Internet  Archive 

in  2011  with  funding  from 

University  of  Illinois  Urbana-Champaign 


http://www.archive.org/details/animalkingdom1832cuvi 


REMARKS. 


In  presenting  this  abridgement  of  the  well  known  "  Animal 
Kingdom"  of  the  Baron  Cuvier  to  those  who  are  charged  with 
one  of  the  most  honourable  and  responsible  offices  of  the 
Republic,  that  of  directing  the  education  and  forming  the 
minds  of  those  into  whose  keeping  its  future  prosperity  and 
happiness  must  be  inevitably  committed,  I  beg  leave  to 
anticipate  the  possible  charge  of  interested  adulation,  by  de- 
claring that  1  have  no  pecuniary  concern  in  the  work,  which 
is,  exclusively  and  entirely,  the  property  of  its  enterprising 
publishers. 

To  say  that  I  am  not  interested  in  its  adoption  by  our 
Teachers,  would  be  false,  for  1  must  confess  I  look  anxiously 
for  that  event,  but  from  other  motives  than  the  "  auri  fames.'* 

The  schools  of  continental  Europe  have  long  been  supplied 
with  works  on  the  Natural  Sciences,  more  particularly  so  call- 
ed, expressly  prepared  for  that  purpose  by  order  of  Govern- 
ment, while  here  they  are  as  yet  among  the  desiderata.  A 
little  reflection  will  soon  convince  every  intelligent  mind,  that 
an  elementary  course  of  Zoology  may  be  pursued  by  the  pupil, 
without  interfering  with  the  usual  matters  to  which  alone  his 
attention  is  at  present  directed,  and  that  of  course  the  argu- 
ment of  "  time  lost"  falls  to  the  ground.  But  when  care- 
ful investigation  shall  have  convinced  it,  that  while  of  all 
studies  the  one  in  question  tends  most  powerfully  to  strengthen 
the  memory,  exercise  the  judgment,  discipline  tlie  mind,  and 
bring  every  intellectual  faculty  of  the  pupil  into  a  state  of  the 
greatest  activity,  it  also  tends  to  elevate  his  moral  character  to 


VI  REMARKS. 

that  lofty  standard  which  is  the  necessary  result  of  that  train  of 
thought  and  inquiry  which  finally  leads  him  from  the  creature  to 
the  Creator,  it  will  admit  it  to  be  "  time  gained"  and  with  the 
most  usurious  interest.  The  vast  number  and  variety  of  facts 
to  be  retained  in  this  study,  and  the  necessity  of  classing  them 
in  the  mind,  begets  a  habit  of  mental  activity,  analysis,  and 
order,  that  is  of  incalculable  value  to  the  possessor  in  the  com- 
mon business  of  life,  enabling  him  to  disentangle  and  arrange 
the  most  confused  and  chaotic  matters  with  certainty  and 
despatch. 

In  compressing  the  four  large  volumes  of  my  edition  of  the 
"  Animal  Kingdom"  into  its  present  form,  I  have  endeavour- 
ed to  retain  the  whole  of  what  I  consider  its  great  and  leading 
points,  and  as  much  of  such  of  the  details  of  the  organization, 
instincts  and  habits  of  the  animals  of  which  it  treats,  as  could 
with  propriety  be  presented  to  the  consideration  of  those 
youthful  minds  for  whose  use  it  is  intended.  The  whole  has 
been  sedulously,  and  I  hope  so  thoroughly  expurgated,  that 
it  may  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  females,  without  the  slightest 
fear  of  their  encountering  a  word  or  idea  that  could  ofiend  the 
most  fastidious  delicacy,  or  sully  that  purity  of  imagination 
and  thought  which  forms  one  of  the  brightest  ornaments  of  the 
sex. 

H.  M'MURTRIE. 

Pine  Street,  Philadelphia, 
December  1831. 


EXPLANATIONS. 


It  is  always  customary  with  writers  on  Natural  History  to 
aflSx  to  every  genus  and  species  the  name  of  its  founder  and 
describer,  and  for  the  sake  of  brevity,  when  it  is  long,  to 
signify  the  same  either  by  the  first  letter  or  syllable,  where 
that  name  is  well  known,  and  by  putting  it  in  full  in  the  op- 
posite case.  Thus  SIMIA,  Lin.,  or  L.  means  that  Linnaeus 
is  the  founder  of  the  genus  Simia,  and  S.  troglodytes,  L. 
means  that  he  first  described  that  particular  species  of  Ourang. 
Most  frequently,  however,  the  contracted  name  refers  to  the 
discoverer  and  describer  of  the  species  which  precedes  it. 


L.  or  Lin.  stands  for 

Linnaeus. 

Fab., 

Fabricius. 

Lat., 

Latreille. 

Geofif.,      . 

. 

Geofiroy. 

Illig.,       . 

Illiger. 

Cuv., 

Cuvier. 

Fr.  Cuv., 

Frederick  Cuvier 

Buff, 

Buffon. 

Pall.,        . 

Pallus. 

Lam., 

Lamarck. 

Gm., 

Gmelin, 

&C.& 

c.  &c. 

INTRODUCTIOlSr. 


AS  correct  ideas  respecting  natural  history  are  not  very  generally 
formed,  it  appears  necessary  to  begin  by  defining  its  peculiar  ob- 
ject, and  establishing  rigorous  limits  between  it  and  neighbouring 
sciences. 

In  our  language  and  in  most  others,  the  word  nattjke  is  vari- 
ously employed.  At  one  time  it  is  used  to  express  the  qualities  a 
being  derives  from  birth,  in  opposition  to  those  it  may  owe  to  art ; 
at  another,  the  entire  mass  of  beings  which  compose  the  universe  ; 
and  at  a  third,  the  laws  which  govern  those  beings.  It  is  in  this 
latter  sense  particularly  that  we  usually  personify  Nature,  and, 
through  respect,  use  its  name  for  that  of  its  Creator. 

Physics,  or  Natural  Philosophy,  treats  of  the  nature  of  these 
three  relations,  and  is  either  general  or  particular.  General  phy- 
sics examines  abstractedly  each  of  the  properties  of  those  movable 
and  extended  beings  we  call  bodies.  That  branch  of  them,  styled 
Dynamics,  considers  bodies  in  mass;  and  proceeding  from  a  very 
small  number  of  experiments,  determines  mathematically  the  laws 
of  equilibrium,  and  those  of  motion  and  of  its  communication.  Its 
different  divisions  are  termed  Statics,  Hydrostatics,  Hydrodynamics, 
Mechanics,  &.c.  «Sz.c.,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  particular  bo- 
dies whose  motions  it  examines.  Optics  considers  the  particular 
motions  of  light,  whose  phenomena,  which,  hitherto,  nothing  but  ex- 
periment has  been  able  to  determine,  are  becoming  more  numerous. 

Chemistry,  another  branch  of  general  physics,  exposes  the  laws 
by  which  the  elementary  molecules  of  bodies  act  on  each  other;  the 
combinations  or  separations  which  result  from  the  general  tendency 
of  these  molecules  to  re-unite;  and  the  modifications  which  the  va- 
rious circumstances  capable  of  separating  or  approximating  them 
B 


10  INTRODUCTION. 

produce  on  that  tendency.     It  is  purely  a  science  of  experiment, 
and  is  irreducible  to  calculation. 

The  theory  of  heat  and  that  of  electricity  belong  either  to  Dyna- 
mics or  Chemistry,  according  to  the  point  of  view  in  which  they  are 
considered. 

The  ruling  method  in  all  the  branches  of  general  physics  consists 
in  insulating  bodies,  reducing  them  to  their  greatest  simplicity,  in 
bringing  each  of  their  properties  separately  into  action,  either  by 
reflection  or  experiment,  and  by  observing  or  calculating  the  results; 
and  finally,  in  generalising  and  connecting  the  laws  of  these  pro- 
perties, so  as  to  form  codes,  and,  if  it  were  possible,  to  refer  them 
to  one  single  principle  into  which  they  might  all  be  resolved. 

The  object  of  Particular  Physics,  or  of  Natural  History — for 
the  terms  are  synonymous — is  the  special  application  of  the  laws 
recognised  by  the  various  branches  of  general  physics  to  the  numer- 
ous and  varied  beings  which  exist  in  nature,  in  order  to  explain  the 
phenomena  which  each  of  them  presents. 

Within  this  extensive  range,  Astronomy  also  would  be  included; 
but  that  science,  sufficiently  elucidated  by  Mechanics,  and  completely 
subjected  to  its  laws,  employs  methods  differing  too  widely  from 
those  required  by  Natural  History,  to  permit  it  to  be  cultivated  by  the 
students  of  the  latter. 

Natural  History,  then,  is  confined  to  objects  which  do  not  allow  of 
exact  calculation,  nor  of  precise  measurement  in  all  their  parts. 
Meteorology  also  is  substracted  from  it  and  united  to  general  phy- 
sics; so  that,  properly  speaking,  it  considers  only  inanimate  bodies 
called  minerals,  and  the  different  kinds  of  living  beings,  in  all  of 
which  we  may  observe  the  effects,  more  or  less  various,  of  the  laws  of 
motion  and  chemical  attraction,  and  of  all  the  other  causes  analysed 
by  general  physics. 

Natural  History,  in  strictness,  should  employ  similar  methods  with 
the  general  sciences;  and  it  does  so,  in  fact,  whenever  the  objects 
it  examines  are  sufficiently  simple  to  allow  it.  This,  however,  is 
but  very  rarely  the  case. 

An  essential  difference  between  the  general  sciences  and  Natural 
History  is,  that  in  the  former,  phenomena  are  examined,  whose  con- 
ditions are  all  regulated  by  the  examiner,  in  order,  by  their  analysis, 
to  arrive  at  general  laws;  whereas  in  the  latter,  they  take  place  under 
circumstances  beyond  the  control  of  him  who  studies  them  for  the 
purpose  of  discovering  amid  the  complication,  the  effects  of  known 


INTRODUCTION.  11 

general  laws.  He  is  not,  like  the  experimenter,  allowed  to  subtract 
them  successively  from  each  condition,  and  to  reduce  the  problem 
to  its  elements — he  is  compelled  to  take  it  in  its  entireness,  with  all 
its  conditions  at  once,  and  can  perform  the  analysis  only  in  thought. 
Suppose,  for  example.,  we  attempt  to  insulate  the  numerous  pheno- 
mena which  compose  the  life  of  any  of  the  higher  orders  of  animals; 
a  single  one  being  suppressed,  every  vestige  of  life  is  annihilated. 

Dynamics  have  thus  nearly  become  a  science  of  pure  calculation, 
Chemistry  is  still  a  science  of  pure  experiment;  and  Natural  History, 
in  a  great  number  of  its  branches,  will  long  remain  one  of  pure 
observation. 

These  three  terms  sufficiently  designate  the  methods  employed  in 
the  three  branches  of  the  natural  sciences;  but  in  establishing  be- 
tween them  very  different  degrees  of  certitude,  they  indicate,  at  the 
same  time,  the  point  to  which  they  should  incessantly  tend,  in  order 
to  attain  nearer  and  nearer  to  perfection. 

Calculation,  if  we  may  so  express  it,  thus  commands  Nature,  and 
determines  her  phenomena  more  exactly  than  observation  can  make 
them  known;  experiment  compels  her  to  unveil;  while  observation 
pries  into  her  secrets  when  refractory,  and  endeavours  to  surprise 
her. 

There  is,  however,  a  principle  peculiar  to  Natural  History,  which 
it  uses  with  advantage  on  many  occasions;  it  is  that  oi  the  conditions 
of  existence^  commonly  styled  final  causes.  As  nothing  can  exist 
without  the  re-union  of  those  conditions  which  render  its  existence 
possible,  the  component  parts  of  each  being  must  be  so  arranged  as 
to  render  possible  the  whole  being,  not  only  with  regard  to  itself 
but  to  its  surrounding  relations.  The  analysis  of  these  conditions 
frequently  conducts  us  to  general  laws,  as  certain  as  those  that  are 
derived  from  calculation  or  experiment. 

It  is  only  when  all  the  laws  of  general  physics  and  those  which 
result  from  the  conditions  of  existence  are  exhausted,  that  we  are 
reduced  to  the  simple  laws  of  observation. 

The  most  effectual  method  of  obtaining  these  is  that  of  compa- 
rison. This  consists  in  successively  observing  the  same  bodies  in  the 
different  positions  in  which  nature  places  them,  or  in  a  mutual  com- 
parison of  different  bodies;  until  we  have  ascertained  invariable 
relations  between  their  structures  and  the  phenomena  they  exhibit. 
These  various  bodies  are  kinds  of  experiments  ready  prepared  by 
Nature,  who  adds  to  or  deducts  from  each  of  them  different  parts, 


12  INTRODUCTION. 

just  as  we  might  wish  to  do  in  our  laboratories;  showing  us,  herself, 
at  the  same  time  their  various  results. 

In  this  way  we  finally  succeed  in  establishing  certain  laws  by  which 
these  relations  are  governed,  and  which  are  employed  like  those 
that  are  determined  by  the  general  sciences. 

The  incorporation  of  these  laws  of  observation  with  the  general 
laws,  either  directly  or  by  the  principle  of  the  conditions  of  exist- 
ence, would  complete  the  system  of  the  natural  sciences,  in  render- 
ing sensible  in  all  its  parts  the  mutual  influence  of  every  being.  To 
this  end,  should  those  who  cultivate  these  sciences  direct  all  their 
eflfbrts. 

All  researches  of  this  nature,  however,  pre-suppose  means  of  dis- 
tinguishing clearly,  and  causing  others  to  distinguish,  the  bodies  they 
are  occupied  with;  otherwise  we  should  be  continually  confounding 
them.  Natural  History  then  should  be  based  on  what  is  called  a 
System  of  Nature;  or  a  great  catalogue,  in  which  all  created  beings 
have  suitable  names,  may  be  recognised  by  distinctive  characters, 
and  be  arranged  in  divisions  and  subdivisions,  themselves  named  and 
characterised,  in  which  they  may  be  found. 

In  order  that  each  being  may  be  recognised  in  this  catalogue,  it 
must  be  accompanied  by  its  character:  habits  or  properties  which 
are  but  momentary  cannot,  then,  furnish  characters — they  must  be 
drawn  from  the  conformation. 

There  is  scarcely  a  single  being  which  has  a  simple  character, 
or  can  be  recognised  by  one  single  feature  of  its  conformation;  a 
union  of  several  of  these  traits  are  almost  always  required  to  dis- 
tinguish one  being  from  those  that  surround  it,  who  also  have  some 
but  not  all  of  them,  or  who  have  them  combined  with  others  of 
which  the  first  is  destitute.  The  more  numerous  the  beings  to  be 
distinguished,  the  greater  should  be  the  number  of  traits;  so  that  to 
distinguish  an  individual  being  from  all  others,  a  complete  descrip- 
tion of  it  should  enter  into  its  character. 

It  is  to  avoid  this  inconvenience,  that  divisions  and  subdivisions 
have  been  invented.  A  certain  number  only  of  neighbouring  beings 
are  compared  with  each  other,  and  their  characters  need  only  to 
express  their  difl^erences,  which,  by  the  supposition  itself,  are  the 
least  part  of  their  conformation.    Such  a  re-union  is  termed  a  genus. 

The  same  inconvenience  would  be  experienced  in  distinguishing 
genera  from  each  other,  were  it  not  for  the  repetition  of  the  opera- 
tion in  uniting  the  adjoining  genera,  so  as  to  form  an  order.,   the 


INTRODUCTION.  13 

orders  to  form  a  class,  &-c.  Intermediate  subdivisions  may  also  be 
established. 

This  scaffolding  of  divisions,  the  superior  of  which  contain  the 
inferior,  is  called  a  method.  It  is  in  some  respects  a  sort  of  dic- 
tionary, in  which  we  proceed  from  the  properties  of  things  to  arrive 
at  their  names;  being  the  reverse  of  the  common  ones,  in  which  we 
proceed  from  the  name  to  arrive  at  the  property. 

When  the  method  is  good,  it  does  more  than  teach  us  names.  If 
the  subdivisions  have  not  been  established  arbitrarily,  but  are  based 
on  the  true  fundamental  relations,  on  the  essential  resemblances  of 
beings,  the  method  is  the  surest  means  of  reducing  the  properties  of 
beings  to  general  rules,  of  expressing  them  in  the  fewest  words,  and 
of  stamping  them  on  the  memory. 

To  render  it  such,  we  apply  an  assiduous  comparison  of  beings, 
directed  by  the  principle  of  the  subordination  of  characters,  which 
is  itself  derived  from  that  of  the  conditions  of  existence.  The  parts 
of  a  being  possessing  a  mutual  adaptation,  some  traits  of  character 
exclude  others,  while  on  the  contrary,  there  are  others  that  require 
them.  When,  therefore,  we  perceive  such  or  such  traits  in  a  being, 
we  can  calculate  before  hand  those  that  co-exist  in  it,  or  those  that 
are  incompatible  with  them.  The  parts,  the  properties,  or  the  traits 
of  conformation,  which  have  the  greatest  number  of  these  relations 
of  incompatibility  or  of  co-existence  with  others,  or,  in  other  words, 
that  exercise  the  most  marked  influence  upon  the  whole  of  the  being, 
are  called  the  important  characters,  dominating  characters;  the 
others  are  the  subordinate  characters,  all  varying  in  degree. 

This  influence  of  character  is  sometimes  determined  rationally, 
by  the  consideration  of  the  nature  of  the  organ.  When  this  is  im- 
practicable, we  have  recourse  to  simple  observation;  and  a  sure  mark 
by  which  we  may  recognise  the  important  characters,  and  one  which 
is  drawn  from  their  own  nature,  is  their  superior  constancy,  and 
that  in  a  long  series  of  different  beings,  approximated  according  to 
their  degrees  of  similitude,  these  characters  are  the  last  to  vary. 

That  they  should  be  preferred  for  distinguishing  the  great  divisions, 
and  that  in  proportion  as  we  descend  to  the  inferior  subdivisions,  we 
can  also  descend  to  subordinate  and  variable  characters,  is  a  rule 
resulting  equally  from  their  influence  and  constancy. 

There  can  be  but  one  perfect  method,  which  is  the  wa^Mra^wie^Aod!. 
We  thus  name  an  arrangement  in  which  beings  of  the  same  genus 
are  placed  nearer  to  each  other  than  to  those  of  the  other  genera;  the 


14  INTRODUCTION. 

genera  of  the  same  order  nearer  than  those  of  the  other  orders,  &c. 
&c.  This  method  is  the  ideal  to  which  Natural  History  should  tend; 
for  it  is  evident  that  if  we  can  reach  it,  we  shall  have  the  exact  and 
complete  expression  of  all  nature.  In  fact,  each  being  is  determined 
by  its  resemblance  to  others,  and  difference  from  them;  and  all  these 
relations  would  be  fully  given  by  the  arrangement  in  question.  In 
a  word,  the  natural  method  would  be  the  whole  science,  and  every 
step  towards  it  tends  to  advance  the  science  to  perfection. 

Life  being  the  most  important  of  all  the  properties  of  beings,  and 
the  highest  of  all  characters,  it  is  not  surprising  that  it  has  in  all  ages 
been  made  the  most  general  principle  of  distinction;  and  that  natu- 
ral beings  have  always  been  separated  into  two  immense  divisions, 
the  living  and  the  inanimate. 

Of  Living  Beings^  and  Organization  in  general. 

If,  in  order  to  obtain  a  correct  idea  of  the  essence  of  life,  we 
consider  it  in  those  beings  in  which  its  effects  are  the  most  simple, 
we  quickly  perceive  that  it  consists  in  the  faculty  possessed  by  cer- 
tain corporeal  combinations,  of  continuing  for  a  time  and  under  a 
determinate  form,  by  constantly  attracting  into  their  composition  a 
part  of  surrounding  substances,  and  rendering  to  the  elements,  por- 
tions of  their  own. 

Life  then  is  a  vortex,  more  or  less  rapid,  more  or  less  complicated, 
the  direction  of  which  is  invariable,  and  which  always  carries  along 
molecules  of  similar  kinds,  but  into  which  individual  molecules  are 
continually  entering,  and  from  which  they  are  continually  departing; 
so  that  the  form  of  a  living  body  is  more  essential  to  it  than  its 
matter. 

As  long  as  this  motion  subsists,  the  body  in  which  it  takes  place  is 
living — it  lives.  When  it  finally  ceases,  it  dies.  After  death,  the 
elements  which  compose  it,  abandoned  to  the  ordinary  chemical 
affinities,  soon  separate,  from  which,  more  or  less  quickly,  results  the 
dissolution  of  the  once  living  body.  It  was  then  by  the  vital  motion 
that  its  dissolution  was  arrested,  and  its  elements  were  held  in  a  tem- 
porary union. 

All  living  bodies  die  after  a  certain  period,  whose  extreme  limit 
is  fixed  for  each  species,  and  death  appears  to  be  a  necessary  conse- 
quence of  life,  which,  by  its  own  action,  insensibly  alters  the  struc- 
ture of  the  body,  so  as  to  render  its  continuance  impossible. 


INTRODUCTION.  15 

In  fact,  the  living  body  undergoes  gradual,  but  continual  changes, 
during  the  whole  term  of  its  existence.  At  first,  it  increases  in 
dimensions,  according  to  proportions,  and  within  limits,  fixed  for 
each  species  and  for  each  one  of  its  parts;  it  then  augments  in  den- 
sity in  the  most  of  its  parts: — it  is  this  second  kind  of  change  that 
appears  to  be  the  cause  of  natural  death. 

If  we  examine  the  various  living  bodies  more  closely,  we  find  they 
possess  a  common  structure,  which  a  little  reflection  soon  causes  us 
to  perceive  is  essential  to  a  vortex  such  as  the  vital  motion. 

Solids,  it  is  plain,  are  necessary  to  these  bodies,  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  their  forms;  and  fluids  for  the  conservation  of  motion  in 
them.  Their  tissue,  accordingly,  is  composed  of  network  and 
plates,  or  of  fibres  and  solid  laminae,  within  whose  interstices  are 
contained  the  fluids;  it  is  in  these  fluids  that  the  motion  is  most  con- 
tinued and  extended.  Foreign  substances  penetrate  the  body  and 
unite  with  them;  they  nourish  the  solids  by  the  interposition  of  their 
molecules,  and  also  detach  from  them  those  that  are  superfluous. 
It  is  in  a  liquid  or  gaseous  form  that  the  matters  to  be  exhaled  tra- 
verse the  pores  of  the  living  body;  but  in  return,  it  is  the  solids  which 
contain  the  fluids,  and  by  their  contraction  communicate  to  them 
part  of  their  motion. 

This  mutual  action  of  the  fluids  and  solids,  this  transition  of  mole- 
cules, required  considerable  affinity  in  their  chemical  composition; 
and  such  is  the  fact — the  solids  of  organized  bodies  being  mostly 
composed  of  elements  easily  convertible  into  fluids  or  gases. 

The  motion  of  the  fluids  needing  also  a  constantly  repeated  action 
on  the  part  of  the  solids,  and  communicating  one  to  them,  required 
in  the  latter  both  flexibility  and  dilatability;  and  accordingly  we  find 
this  character  nearly  general  in  all  organized  solids. 

This  structure,  common  to  all  living  bodies;  this  areolar  tissue, 
whose  more  or  less  flexible  fibres  or  laminae  intercept  fluids  more  or 
less  abundant;  constitutes  what  is  called  the  organization.  As  a 
consequence  of  what  we  have  said,  it  follows,  that  life  can  be  enjoyed 
by  organized  bodies  only. 

Organization,  then,  results  from  a  great  variety  of  arrangements, 
which  are  all  conditions  of  life;  and  it  is  easy  to  conceive,  that  if  its 
effect  be  to  alter  either  of  these  conditions,  so  as  to  arrest  even  one 
of  the  partial  motions  of  which  it  is  composed,  the  general  move- 
ment of  life  must  cease. 

Every  organized  body,  independently  of  the  qualities  common  to 


16  INTRODUCTION. 

its  tissue,  has  a  form  peculiar  to  itself,  not  merely  general  and  exter- 
nal, but  extending  to  the  detail  of  the  structure  of  each  of  its  parts; 
and  it  is  upon  this  form,  which  determines  the  particular  direction  of 
each  of  the  partial  movements  that  take  place  in  it,  that  depends  the 
complication  of  the  general  movement  of  its  life— it  constitutes  its 
species  and  renders  it  what  it  is.  Each  part  co-operates  in  this 
general  movement  by  a  peculiar  action,  and  experiences  from  it 
particular  effects,  so  that  in  every  being  life  is  a  whole,  resulting  from 
the  mutual  action  and  re-action  of  all  its  parts. 

Life,  then,  in  general,  pre-supposes  organization  in  general,  and 
the  life  proper  to  each  individual  being  pre-supposes  an  organization 
peculiar  to  that  being,  just  as  the  movement  of  a  clock  pre-supposes 
the  clock;  and  accordingly  we  behold  life  only  in  beings  that  are 
organized  and  formed  to  enjoy  it,  and  ail  the  efforts  of  philosophy 
have  never  been  able  to  discover  matter  in  the  act  of  organization, 
neither  per  se,  nor  by  any  external  cause.  In  fact,  life  exercising 
upon  the  elements  which  at  every  moment  form  a  part  of  the  living 
body,  and  upon  those  which  it  attracts  to  it,  an  action  contrary  to 
that  which,  without  it,  would  be  produced  by  the  usual  chemical 
affinities,  it  seems  impossible  that  it  can  be  produced  by  these  affini- 
ties, and  yet  we  know  of  no  other  power  in  nature  capable  of  re- 
uniting previously  separated  molecules. 

The  birth  of  organized  beings  is,  therefore,  the  greatest  mystery 
of  the  organic  economy  and  of  all  nature:  we  see  them  developed, 
but  never  being  formed;  nay  more,  all  those  whose  origin  we  can 
trace,  have  at  first  been  attached  to  a  body  similar  in  form  to  their 
own,  but  which  was  developed  before  them — in  a  word,  to  a  parent. 
So  long  as  the  offspring  has  no  independent  existence,  but  partici- 
pates in  that  of  its  parent,  it  is  called  a  germ. 

The  place  to  which  the  germ  is  attached,  and  the  cause  which 
detaches  it  and  gives  it  an  independent  life,  vary;  but  this  primitive 
adhesion  to  a  similar  being  is  a  rule  without  exception.  The  sepa- 
ration of  the  germ  is  called  generation. 

Every  organized  being  re-produces  others  that  are  similar  to  itself, 
otherwise,  death  being  a  necessary  consequence  of  life,  the  species 
would  become  extinct. 

Organized  beings  have  even  the  faculty  of  reproducing,  in  degrees 
varying  with  the  species,  particular  parts  of  which  they  may  have 
been  deprived — this  is  called  the  power  of  reproduction. 

The  development  of  organized  beings  is  more  or  less  rapid,  and 


INTRODUCTION.  17 

more  or  less  extended,  as  circumstances  are  more  or  less  favourable. 
Heat,  the  abundance  and  species  of  nutriment,  with  other  causes, 
exercise  great  influence,  and  this  influence  may  extend  to  the  whole 
body  in  general,  or  to  certain  organs  in  particular:  thence  arises  the 
impossibility  of  a  perfect  similitude  between  the  offspring  and  parent. 

DiflTerences  of  this  kind,  between  organized  beings,  form  what 
are  termed  varieties. 

There  is  no  proof,  that  all  (he  differences  which  now  distinguish 
organized  beings  are  such  as  may  have  been  produced  by  circum- 
stances. All  that  has  been  advanced  upon  this  subject  is  hypothe- 
tical. Experience,  on  the  contrary,  appears  to  prove,  that,  in  the 
actual  state  of  the  globe,  varieties  are  confined  within  rather  narrow 
limits,  and  go  back  as  far  as  we  may,  we  still  find  those  limits  the 
same. 

We  are  thus  compelled  to  admit  of  certain  forms,  which,  from 
the  origin  of  things,  have  perpetuated  themselves  without  exceeding 
these  limits;  and  every  being,  appertaining  to  one  or  other  of  these 
forms,  constitutes  what  is  termed  a  species.  Varieties  are  acciden- 
tal subdivisions  of  species. 

Species  should  be  defined,  the  re-union  of  individuals  descended 
one  from  the  other,  or  from  common  parents,  or  from  such  as  resem- 
ble them,  as  strongly  as  they  resemble  each  other.  But  although  this 
definition  is  strict,  it  will  be  seen  that  its  application  to  particular 
individuals  may  be  very  difficult,  where  the  necessary  experiments 
have  not  been  made. 

Thus  then  it  stands — absorption,  assimilation,  exhalation,  develop- 
ment and  generation  are  functions  common  to  all  living  bodies;  birth 
and  death  the  universal  limits  of  their  existence;  an  areolar,  con- 
tractile tissue,  containing  within  its  laminae  fluids  or  gases  in  motion, 
the  general  essence  of  its  structure;  substances  almost  all  suscepti- 
ble of  conversion  into  fluids  or  gases,  and  combinations  capable  of 
an  easy  and  mutual  transformation,  the  basis  of  their  chemical  com- 
position. Fixed  forms  that  are  perpetuated  by  generation  distinguish 
their  species,  determine  the  complication  of  the  secondary  functions 
proper  to  each  of  them,  and  assign  to  them  the  parts  they  are  to 
play  on  the  great  stage  of  the  universe.  These  forms  are  neither 
produced  nor  changed  by  their  own  agency — life  supposes  their  ex- 
istence, its  flame  can  only  be  kindled  in  an  organization  already 
prepared,  and  the  most  profound  meditation  and  lynx-eyed  and  deli- 
C 


18  INTRODUCTION. 

cate  observation  can  penetrate  no  farther  than  the  mystery  of  the 
pre-exiatence  of  the  germs. 

Divisions  of  organized  beings  info  Animals  and  Vegetables. 

Living  or  organized  beings  have  always  been  subdivided  into  ani- 
mate beings,  that  is,  such  as  are  possessed  of  sense  and  motion,  and 
into  inanimate  beings,  vehich  are  deprived  of  both  these  faculties, 
and  are  reduced  to  the  simple  faculty  of  vegetating.  Although  the 
leaves  of  several  planks  shrink  from  the  touch,  and  the  roots  are 
steadily  directed  towards  moisture,  the  leaves  to  light  and  air,  and 
though  parts  of  vegetables  appear  to  oscillate  without  any  apparent 
external  cause,  still  these  various  motions  have  too  little  similarity 
to  those  of  animals,  to  enable  us  to  find  in  them  any  proofs  of  per- 
ception or  will. 

The  spontaneity  in  the  motions  of  animals  required  essential  mo- 
difications even  in  their  purely  vegetative  organs.  Their  roots  not 
penetrating  the  earth,  it  was  necessary  they  should  be  able  to  place 
within  themselves  a  supply  of  aliment,  and  to  carry  its  reservoir 
along  with  them.  Hence  is  derived  the  first  character  of  animals, 
or  their  alimentary  canal,  from  which  their  nutritive  fluid  penetrates 
all  other  parts  through  pores  or  vessels,  which  are  a  kind  of  internal 
roots. 

The  organization  of  this  cavity  and  its  appurtenances  required 
varying,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  aliment,  and  the  operation  it 
had  to  undergo,  before  it  could  furnish  juices  fit  for  absorption; 
whilst  the  air  and  earth  present  to  vegetables  nought  but  elaborated 
juices  ready  for  absorption. 

The  animal,  whose  functions  are  more  numerous  and  varied  than 
those  of  the  plant,  consequently  necessitated  an  organization  much 
more  complete;  besides  this,  its  parts  not  being  capable  of  preserv- 
ing one  fixed  relative  position,  there  were  no  means  by  which  exter- 
nal causes  could  produce  the  motion  of  their  fluids,  which  required 
an  exemption  from  atmospheric  influence;  from  this  originates  the 
second  character  of  animals,  their  circulating  system,  one  less  essen- 
tial than  that  of  digestion,  since  in  the  more  simple  animals  it  is 
unnecessary.  The  animal  functions  required  organic  systems,  not 
needed  by  vegetables — that  of  the  muscles  for  voluntary  motion,  and 
serves  for  sensibility;  and  these  two  systems,  like  the  rest,  acting 
only  through  the  motions  and  transformations  of  the  fluids,  it  was 


INTRODUCTION.  19 

necessary  that  these  should  be  most  numerous  in  animals,  and  that 
the  chemical  composition  of  the  animal  body  be  more  complex  than 
that  of  the  plant;  and  so  it  is,  for  one  substance  more  (azote)  enters 
into  it  as  an  essential  element,  whilst  in  plants  it  is  a  mere  acciden- 
tal junction  with  the  three  other  general  elements  of  organization, 
oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  carbon.  This  then  is  the  third  character  of 
animals. 

From  the  sun  and  atmosphere,  vegetables  receive  for  their  nutri- 
tion water,  which  is  composed  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen;  air,  which 
contains  oxygen  and  azote;  and  carbonic  acid,  which  is  a  combina- 
tion of  oxygen  and  carbon.  To  extract  their  own  composition  from 
these  alinients,  it  was  necessary  they  should  retain  the  hydrogen 
and  carbon,  exhale  the  superfluous  oxygen  and  absorb  little  or  no 
azote.  Such,  in  fact,  is  vegetable  life,  whose  essential  function  is 
the  exhalation  of  oxygen,  which  is  effected  through  the  agency  of 
light. 

Animals  also  derive  nourishment,  directly  or  indirectly,  from  the 
vegetable  itself,  in  which  the  hydrogen  and  carbon  form  the  principal 
parts.  To  assimilate  them  to  their  own  composition,  they  must  get 
rid  of  the  superabundant  hydrogen  and  carbon  in  particular,  and 
accumulate  more  azote,  which  is  performed  through  the  medium  of 
respiration,  by  which  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere  combines  with 
the  hydrogen  and  carbon  of  their  blood,  and  is  exhaled  with  them  in 
the  form  of  water  and  carbonic  acid.  The  azote,  whatever  part  of 
the  body  it  may  penetrate,  seems  always  to  remain  there. 

The  relations  of  vegetables  and  animals  to  the  surrounding  atmos- 
phere are  therefore  in  an  inverse  ratio — the  former  reject  water  and 
carbonic  acid,  while  the  latter  produce  them.  The  essential  func- 
tion of  the  animal  body  is  respiration;  it  is  that  which  in  a  manner 
animalizes  it;  and  we  shall  see  that  the  animal  functions  are  the  more 
completely  exercised,  in  proportion  to  the  greatness  of  the  powers 
of  respiration  possessed  by  the  animal.  This  difference  of  relations 
constitutes  the  fourth  character  of  animals. 

Of  the  forms  peculiar  to  the  organic  elements  of  the  animal  body, 
and  of  the  principal  combinations  of  its  chemical  elements. 

An  areolar  tissue  and  three  chemical  elements  are  essential  to 
every  living  body;  there  is  a  fourth  element  peculiarly  requisite  to 


20  INTRODUCTION. 

that  of  an  animal;  but  this  tissue  is  composed  of  variously  formed 
meshes,  and  these  elements  are  variously  combined. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  organic  materials  or  forms  of  texture, 
the  cellular  membrane^  the  muscular  fibre.,  and  the  medullary  matter., 
and  to  each  form  belongs  a  peculiar  combination  of  chemical  ele- 
ments, as  vi'^ell  as  a  particular  function. 

The  cellular  substance  is  composed  of  an  infinity  of  small  fibres 
and  laminae,  fortuitously  disposed,  so  as  to  form  little  cells  that  com- 
municate with  each  other.  It  is  a  kind  of  sponge,  which  has  the  same 
forni  as  the  body,  all  other  parts  of  which  traverse  or  fill  it,  and 
contracting  indefinitely,  on  the  removal  of  the  causes  of  its  tension. 
It  is  this  power  that  retains  the  body  in  a  given  form  and  within  cer- 
tain limits. 

When  condensed,  this  substance  forms  those  lamina  called  mem- 
branes; the  membranes,  rolled  into  cylinders,  form  those  more  or 
less  ramified  tubes  named  vessels;  the  filaments  called  fibres  are 
resolved  into  it,  and  bones  are  nothing  but  the  same  thing  indurated 
by  the  accumulation  of  earthy  particles. 

The  cellular  substance  consists  of  a  combination  well  known  as 
gelatine.,  characterised  by  its  solubility  in  boiling  water,  and  forming, 
when  cold,  a  trembling  jelly. 

We  have  not  yet  been  able  to  reduce  tlie  medullary  matter  to  its 
organic  molecules;  to  the  naked  eye,  it  appears  like  a  sort  of  soft 
bouillie,  consisting  of  excessively  small  globules;  it  is  not  suscepti- 
ble of  any  apparent  motion,  but  in  it  resides  the  admirable  power  of 
transmitting  to  the  mind  the  impressions  of  the  external  senses,  and 
conveying  to  the  muscles  the  orders  of  the  will.  It  constitutes  the 
greater  portion  of  the  brain  and  the  spinal  marrow,  and  the  nerves 
which  are  distributed  to  all  the  sentient  organs  are,  essentially,  mere 
fasciculi  of  its  ramifications. 

The  fieshy  or  muscular  fibre  is  a  peculiar  sort  of  filament,  whose 
distinctive  property,  during  life,  is  that  of  contracting  when  touched 
or  struck,  or  when  it  experiences  the  action  of  the  will  through  the 
medium  of  the  nerve. 

The  muscles,  direct  organs  of  voluntary  motion,  are  mere  bundles 
of  fleshy  fibres.  All  vessels  and  membranes  which  have  any  kind 
of  compression  to  execute  are  armed  with  these  fibres.  They  are 
always  intimately  connected  with  the  nervous  threads,  but  those 
which  belong  to  the  purely  vegetative  functions  contract,  without 


INTRODUCTION.  ^l 

the  knowledge  of  the  individual,  so  that,  although  the  will  is  truly  a 
means  of  causing  the  fibres  to  act,  it  is  neither  general  nor  unique. 

The  fleshy  fibre  has  for  its  base  a  particular  substance  called 
fihrine^  which  is  insoluble  in  boiling  water,  and  which  seems  natu- 
rally to  assume  this  filamentous  disposition. 

The  nutritive  Jluid  or  the  blood,  such  as  we  find  in  the  vessels 
of  the  circulation,  is  not  only  mostly  resolvable  into  the  general 
elements  of  the  animal  body,  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen  and  azote, 
but  it  also  contains  fibrine  and  gelatine,  almost  prepared  to  contract 
and  to  assume  the  forms  of  membranes  or  filaments  peculiar  to 
them,  all  that  is  ever  wanted  for  their  manifestation  being  a  little 
repose.  The  blood  also  contains  another  combination,  which  is 
found  in  many  aninial  fluids  and  solids,  called  albumen  whose  cha- 
racteristic property  is  that  of  coagulating  in  boiling  water.  Besides 
these,  the  blood  contains  almost  every  element  which  may  enter  into 
the  composition  of  the  body  of  each  animal,  such  as  the  lime  and 
phosphorus  which  harden  the  bones  of  vertebrated  animals,  the  iron 
from  which  it  and  various  other  parts  receive  their  colour,  the  fat 
or  animal  oil  which  is  deposited  in  the  cellular  substance  to  supply 
it,  &c.  All  the  fluids  and  solids  of  the  animal  body  are  composed 
of  chemical  elements  found  in  the  blood,  and  it  is  only  by  possessing 
a  few  elements  more  or  less,  that  each  of  them  is  distinguished; 
whence  it  is  plain,  that  their  formation  entirely  depends  on  the  sub- 
straction  of  the  whole  or  part  of  one  or  more  elements  of  the  blood, 
and  in  some  few  cases,  on  the  addition  of  some  element  from  else- 
where. 

These  operations,  by  which  the  blood  nourishes  the  fluid  or  solid 
matter  of  all  parts  of  the  body,  may  assume  the  general  name  of 
secretions.  This  name,  however,  is  often  appropriated  exclusively 
to  the  production  of  liquids ;  while  that  of  nutrition  is  more  espe- 
cially applied  to  the  formation  and  deposition  of  the  matter  necess- 
ary to  the  growth  and  conservation  of  the  solids. 

The  composition  of  every  solid  organ,  of  every  fluid  is  precisely 
such  as  fits  it  for  the  part  it  is  to  play,  and  it  preserves  it  as  long  as 
health  remains,  because  the  blood  renews  it  as  fast  as  it  becomes 
changed.  The  blood  itself  by  this  continued  contribution  is  changed 
every  moment,  but  is  restored  by  digestion,  which  renews  its  matter 
by  respiration,  which  delivers  it  from  superfluous  carbon  and  hydro- 
gen, by  perspiration  and  various  other  excretions,  that  relieve  it 
from  other  superabundant  principles. 


22  INTRODUCTION. 

These  perpetual  changes  of  chemical  composition  form  a  part  of 
the  vital  vortex,  not  less  essential  than  the  visible  movements  and 
those  of  translation.  The  object  of  the  latter  is,  in  fact,  but  to  pro- 
duce the  former. 

Of  the  forces  which  act  in  the  Animal  Body. 

The  muscular  fibre  is  not  only  the  organ  of  voluntary  motion,  for 
we  have  just  seen  that  it  is  also  the  most  powerful  of  the  agents 
employed  by  nature  to  produce  those  transmutations  so  necessary 
to  vegetative  life.  Thus  the  fibres  of  the  intestines  produce  the 
peristaltic  motion,  which  causes  the  alimentary  matter  therein  con- 
tained to  pass  through  them ;  the  fibres  of  the  heart  and  arteries  are 
the  agents  of  the  circulation  and  through  it  of  all  the  secretions,  &c. 

Volition  contracts  the  fibre  through  the  medium  of  the  nerve ;  and 
the  involuntary  fibres,  such  as  those  we  have  mentioned,  being  also 
animated  by  them,  it  is  probable  that  these  nerves  are  the  cause  of 
their  contraction. 

All  contraction,  and  generally  speaking,  every  change  of  dimen- 
sion in  nature,  is  produced  by  a  change  of  chemical  composition, 
though  it  consist  merely  in  the  flowing  or  ebbing  of  an  imponderable 
fluid,  such  as  caloric ;  thus  also  are  produced  the  most  violent  move- 
ments known  upon  earth,  explosions,  &c. 

There  is,  consequently,  good  reason  to  suppose  that  the  nerve 
acts  upon  the  fibre  through  the  medium  of  an  imponderable  fluid, 
and  the  more  so,  as  it  is  proved  that  this  action  is  not  mechanical. 

The  medullary  matter  of  the  whole  nervous  system  is  homoge- 
neous, and  must  be  able  to  exercise  its  peculiar  functions  wherever 
it  is  found ;  all  its  ramifications  are  abundantly  supplied  with  blood 
vessels. 

All  the  animal  fluids  being  drawn  from  the  blood  by  secretion, 
we  can  have  no  doubt  that  such  is  the  case  with  the  nervous  fluid, 
and  that  the  medullary  matter  secretes  it. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  certain  that  the  medullary  matter  is  the 
sole  conductor  of  the  nervous  fluid ;  all  the  other  organic  elements 
restrain  and  arrest  it,  as  glass  arrests  electricity. 

The  external  causes  which  are  capable  of  producing  sensations 
or  causing  contractions  of  the  fibre  are  all  chemical  agents,  capable 
of  eflecting  decompositions,  such  as  light,  caloric,  the  salts,  odorous 
vapours,  percussion,  compression,  d:.c.  &c. 


INTRODUCTION.  23 

It  would  appear  then  that  these  causes  act  on  the  nervous  fluid 
chemically,  and  by  changing  its  composition ;  this  appears  the  more 
likely,  as  their  action  becomes  weakened  by  continuance,  as  if  the 
nervous  fluid  needed  the  resumption  of  its  primitive  composition,  to 
fit  it  for  a  fresh  alteration. 

The  external  organs  of  the  senses  may  be  compared  to  sieves, 
which  allow  nothing  to  pass  through  to  the  nerve,  except  that  species 
of  agent  which  should  affect  it  in  that  particular  place,  but  which 
often  accumulates  it  so  as  to  increase  its  effect.  The  tongue  has  its 
spongy  papillae  which  imbibe  saline  solutions  ;  the  ear,  a  gelatinous 
pulp  which  is  violently  agitated  by  sonorous  vibrations ;  the  eye, 
transparent  lenses  which  concentrate  the  rays  of  light,  &c.  &c. 

It  is  probable,  that  what  are  styled  irritants,  or  the  agents  which 
occasion  the  contractions  of  the  fibre,  exert  this  action  by  producing 
on  the  fibre,  by  the  nerve,  a  similar  effect  to  that  produced  on  it  by 
the  will ;  that  is,  by  altering  the  nervous  fluid,  in  the  way  that  is  re- 
quisite to  change  the  dimensions  of  the  fibre  which  it  influences : 
but  with  this  process  the  will  has  nothing  to  do,  and  very  often  the 
ME  is  entirely  ignorant  of  it.  The  muscles  separated  from  the  body 
preserve  their  susceptibility  of  irritation,  as  long  as  the  portion  of 
the  nerve  that  remains  with  them  preserves  the  power  of  acting  on 
them — with  this  phenomenon  the  will  has  evidently  no  connexion. 

The  nervous  fluid  is  altered  by  muscular  irritation,  as  well  as  by 
sensibility  and  voluntary  motion,  and  the  same  necessity  exists  for 
the  re-establishment  of  its  primitive  composition. 

The  transmutations  necessary  to  vegetable  life  are  occasioned  by 
irritants  ;  the  aliment  irritates  the  intestine,  the  blood  irritates  the 
heart,  &c.  These  movements  are  all  independent  of  the  will,  and 
generally  (while  in  health)  take  place  without  the  knowledge  of  the 
individual ;  in  several  parts,  the  nerves  that  produce  them  are  even 
differently  arranged  from  those  that  are  appropriated  to  sensation  or 
dependent  on  the  will,  and  the  very  object  of  this  difference  appears 
to  be  the  securing  of  this  independence. 

The  nervous  functions,  that  is,  sensibility  and  muscular  irritability, 
are  so  much  the  stronger  at  every  point,  in  proportion  as  their  ex- 
citing cause  is  abundant ;  and  as  this  cause  or  the  nervous  fluid  is 
produced  by  secretion,  its  abundance  must  be  in  proportion  to  the 
quantity  of  medullary  or  secretory  matter,  and  the  amount  of  blood 
received  by  the  latter. 

In  animals  that  have  a  circulating  system,  the  blood  is  propelled 


24  INTRODUCTION. 

through  the  arteries  which  convey  it  to  its  destined  parts,  by  means 
of  their  irritability  and  that  of  the  heart.  If  these  arteries  be  irri- 
tated, they  act  more  strongly,  and  propel  a  greater  quantity  of  blood ; 
the  nervous  fluid  becomes  more  abundant  and  augments  the  local 
sensibility  ;  this,  in  its  turn,  augments  the  irritabihty  of  the  arteries, 
so  that  this  mutual  action  may  sometimes  be  carried  to  a  great  ex- 
tent. It  is  called  orgasm^  and  when  it  becomes  painful  and  perma- 
nent, inflammation.  The  irritation  may  also  originate  in  the  nerve 
when  exposed  to  the  influence  of  acute  sensations. 

This  mutual  influence  of  the  nerves  and  fibres,  either  intestinal  or 
arterial,  is  the  real  spring  of  vegetative  life  in  animals. 

As  each  external  sense  is  permeable  only  by  such  or  such  sensible 
substances,  so  each  internal  organ  may  be  accessible  only  to  this  or 
that  agent  of  iri-itation.  Thus,  mercury  irritates  the  salivary  glands, 
cantharides  irritate  the  bladder,  &.c.  These  agents  are  called  spe- 
cijics. 

The  nervous  system  being  homogeneous  and  continuous,  local 
sensations  and  irritation  debilitate  the  whole,  and  each  function,  by 
excessive  action,  may  weaken  the  others.  Excess  of  aliment 
weakens  the  power  of  thought,  while  long  continued  meditation 
impairs  that  of  digestion,  &c. 

Excessive  local  irritation  will  enfeeble  the  whole  body,  as  if  all 
the  powers  of  life  were  concentrated  in  one  single  point. 

A  second  irritation  produced  at  another  part  may  diminish,  or 
divert,  as  it  is  termed,  the  first :  such  is  the  eftect  of  blisters,  pur- 
gatives, &-C. 

Brief  as  our  sketch  has  been,  it  is  sufficient  to  establish  the  poss- 
ibility of  accounting  for  all  the  phenomena  of  physical  life,  from  the 
properties  it  presents,  by  the  simple  admission  of  a  fluid  such  as  we 
have  defined. 

Summary  idea  of  the  Functions  and  Organs  of  the  bodies  of 
Animals,  and  of  their  various  degrees  of  complication. 

After  what  we  have  stated  respecting  the  organic  elements  of  the 
body,  its  chemical  principles  and  acting  powers,  nothing  remains 
but  to  give  a  summary  idea  of  the  functions  of  which  life  is  composed, 
and  of  their  appropriate  organs. 

The  functions  of  the  animal  body  are  divided  into  two  classes : 


-     INTRODUCTION.  25 

The  animal  functions,  or  those  proper  to  animals,  that  is  to  say, 
sensibility  and  voluntary  motion. 

The  vital,  vegetative  functions,  or  those  common  to  animals  and 
vegetables,  i.  e.,  nutrition  and  generation. 

Sensibility  resides  in  the  nervous  system. 

The  most  general  external  sense  is  that  of  touch  ;  it  is  seated  in 
the  skin,  a  membrane  that  envelopes  the  whole  body,  which  is  tra- 
versed in  every  direction  by  nerves  whose  extreme  filaments  expand 
on  the  surface  into  papilla?,  and  are  protected  by  the  epidermis  and 
other  insensible  teguments,  such  as  hairs,  scales,  &c.  «Sz-c.  Taste 
and  smell  are  merely  delicate  states  of  the  sense  of  touch,  for  which 
the  skin  of  the  mouth  and  nostrils  is  particularly  organized :  the  first, 
by  means  of  papillae  more  convex  and  spongy ;  the  second,  by  its 
extreme  delicacy  and  the  multiplication  of  its  ever  humid  surface. 
We  have  already  spoken  of  the  ear  and  the  eye.  In  fine,  sensations 
more  or  less  painful  may  originate  in  every  part  of  the  body  through 
accident  or  disease. 

Many  animals  have  neither  ears  nor  nostrils,  several  are  without 
eyes,  and  some  are  reduced  to  the  single  sense  of  touch,  which  is 
never  absent. 

The  action  received  by  the  external  organs  is  continued  by  the 
nerves  to  the  central  masses  of  the  nervous  system,  which,  in  the 
higher  animals,  consists  of  the  brain  and  spinal  marrow.  The  more 
elevated  the  nature  of  the  animal,  the  more  voluminous  is  the  brain 
and  the  more  is  the  sensitive  power  concentrated  there  ;  the  lower 
the  animal,  the  more  the  medullary  masses  are  dispersed,  and  in  the 
most  imperfect  genera,  the  entire  nervous  substance  seems  to  melt 
into  the  general  matter  of  the  body. 

That  part  of  the  body,  which  contains  the  brain  and  principal 
organs  of  sense,  is  called  the  head. 

When  the  animal  has  received  a  sensation,  and  this  has  occasioned 
volition,  it  is  by  the  nerves,  also,  that  this  volition  is  transmitted  to 
the  muscles. 

The  muscles  are  bundles  of  fleshy  fibres  whose  contractions  pro- 
duce all  the  movements  of  the  animal  body.  The  extension  of  the 
limbs  and  every  elongation,  as  well  as  every  flexion  and  abbreviation 
of  parts,  are  the  eflfects  of  muscular  contraction.  The  muscles  of 
every  animal  are  arranged,  both  as  respects  number  and  direction, 
according  to  the  movements  it  has  to  make  ;  and  when  these  motions 
require  force,  the  muscles  are  inserted  into  hard  parts,  articulated 
D 


26  INTRODUCTION. 

one  over  another,  and  may  be  considered  as  so  many  levers.  These 
parts  are  called  bones  in  the  vertebrated  animals,  where  they  are 
internal,  and  are  formed  of  a  gelatinous  mass,  penetrated  by  particles 
of  phosphate  of  lime.  In  the  MoUusca,  the  Crustacea,  and  Insects, 
where  they  are  external,  and  composed  of  a  calcareous  or  horny 
substance  that  exudes  between  the  skin  and  epidermis,  they  are 
called  shells,  crusts  and  scales. 

The  fleshy  fibres  are  attached  to  the  hard  parts  by  means  of  other 
fibres  of  a  gelatinous  nature,  which  seem  to  be  a  continuation  of  the 
former,  constituting  what  are  called  tendons. 

The  configuration  of  the  articulating  surfaces  of  the  hard  parts 
limits  their  motion,  which  are  also  restrained  by  cords  or  envelopes, 
attached  to  the  sides  of  the  articulations,  called  ligaments. 

It  is  from  the  various  arrangements  of  this  bony  and  muscular 
apparatus,  and  the  form  and  proportion  of  the  members  therefrom 
resulting,  that  animals  are  capable  of  executing  the  innumerable 
movements  that  enter  into  walking  and  leaping,  flight  and  natation. 

The  muscular  fibres,  appropriated  to  digestion  and  the  circulation, 
are  independent  of  the  will ;  they  receive  nerves,  however,  but  the 
chief  of  them  are  subdivided  and  arranged  in  a  manner  which  seems 
to  have  for  its  object  their  independence  of  the  will.  It  is  only  in 
paroxysms  of  the  passions  and  other  powerful  affections  of  the  soul, 
•which  break  down  these  barriers,  that  its  empire  is  perceptible, 
and  even  then  it  is  almost  always  to  disorder  these  vegetative  func- 
tions. It  is,  also,  in  a  state  of  sickness  only  that  these  functions 
are  accompanied  with  sensations :  digestion  is  usually  performed  un- 
consciously. 

The  aliment  divided  by  the  jaws  and  teeth,  or  sucked  up  when 
liquids  constitute  the  food,  is  swallowed  by  the  muscular  movements 
of  the  hinder  parts  of  the  mouth  and  throat,  and  deposited  in  the 
first  portions  of  the  alimentary  canal  that  is  usually  expanded  into 
one  or  more  stomachs  ;  there  it  is  penetrated  with  juices  fitted  to 
dissolve  it.  Passing  thence  through  the  rest  of  the  canal,  it  receives 
other  juices  destined  to  complete  its  preparation.  The  parietes  of 
the  canal  are  pierced  with  pcres  which  extract  from  this  alimentary 
mass  its  nutritious  portion  ;  the  useless  residuum  is  rejected. 

The  canal  in  which  this  first  act  of  nutrition  is  performed  is  a 
continuation  of  the  skin,  and  is  composed  of  similar  layers;  even  the 
fibres  that  encircle  it  are  analogous  to  those  which  adhere  to  the 
internal  surface  of  the  skin,  called  the  fleshy  pannicle.     Throughout 


INTRODUCTION.  27 

the  whole  interior  of  this  canal  there  is  a  transudation  which  has 
some  connexion  with  the  cutaneous  perspiration,  and  which  becomes 
more  abundant  when  the  latter  is  suppressed ;  the  absorption  of  the 
skin  is  even  very  analogous  to  that  of  the  intestines.  It  is  in  the 
lowest  order  of  animals  that  the  useless  residuum  is  rejected  by  the 
mouth,  their  intestines  resembling  a  sac,  with  but  the  one  opening. 

Even  among  those  where  the  intestinal  canal  has  two  orifices, 
there  are  many  in  which  the  nutritive  juices  being  absorbed  by  the 
parietes  of  the  intestine,  are  immediately  diffused  throughout  the 
whole  spongy  substance  of  the  body :  such,  it  would  appear,  is  the 
case  with  all  Insects.  But  from  the  Arachnoides  and  Worms  up- 
wards, the  nutritive  fluid  circulates  in  a  system  of  closed  vessels, 
whose  ultimate  ramifications  alone  dispense  its  molecules  to  the 
parts  that  are  nourished  by  it ;  the  vessels  that  convey  it  are  called 
arteries,  those  that  bring  it  back  to  the  centre  of  the  circulation, 
veins.  The  circulating  vortex  is  here  simple,  and  there  double  and 
even  triple  (including  that  of  the  vena  portae)  ;  the  rapidity  of  its 
motion  is  often  assisted  by  the  contractions  of  a  certain  fleshy  appa- 
ratus called  a  heart,  which  is  placed  at  one  or  the  other  centres  of 
circulation,  and  sometimes  at  both  of  them. 

In  the  red-blooded  vertebrated  animals,  the  nutritive  fluid  exudes 
from  the  intestines,  white  or  transparent,  and  is  then  termed  chyle; 
it  is  poured  into  the  veins  where  it  mingles  with  the  blood,  by  two 
peculiar  vessels  called  lacteals.  Vessels  similar  to  these  lacteals, 
and  forming  with  them  an  arrangement  called  the  lymphatic  system, 
also  convey  to  the  venous  blood  the  residue  of  the  nutrition  of  the 
parts  and  the  products  of  cutaneous  absorption. 

Before  the  blood  is  fit  to  nourish  the  parts,  it  must  experience 
from  the  circumambient  element  the  modification  of  which  we  have 
previously  spoken.  In  animals  possessing  a  circulating  system,  one 
portion  of  the  vessels  is  destined  to  carry  the  blood  into  organs  in 
which  they  spread  it  over  a  great  surface  to  obtain  an  increase  of 
this  elemental  influence.  When  that  element  is  air,  the  surface  is 
hollow,  and  is  called  lungs;  when  it  is  water,  it  is  salient,  and  is 
termed  branchiae.  There  is  always  an  arrangement  of  the  organs 
of  motion  for  the  purpose  of  propelling  the  element  into,  or  upon, 
the  organ  of  respiration. 

In  animals  destitute  of  a  circulating  system,  air  is  diffused  through 
every  part  of  the  body  by  elastic  vessels  called  trachetB ;  or  water 
acts  upon  them,  either  by  penetrating  through  vessels,  or  by  simply 


28  INTRODUCTION. 

bathing  the  surface  of  the  skin.  The  respired,  or  purified  blood  is 
properly  qualified  for  restoring  the  composition  of  all  the  parts,  and 
to  effect  what  is  properly  called  nutrition.  This  facility,  which  the 
blood  possesses,  of  decomposing  itself  at  every  point,  so  as  to  leave 
there  the  precise  kind  of  molecule  necessary,  is  indeed  wonderful ; 
but  it  is  this  wonder  which  constitutes  the  whole  vegetative  life. 
For  the  nourishment  of  the  solids  we  see  no  other  arrangement  than 
a  great  subdivision  of  the  extreme  arterial  ramifications,  but  for  the 
production  of  fluids  the  apparatus  is  more  complex  and  various. 
Sometimes  the  extremities  of  the  vessels  simply  spread  themselves 
over  large  surfaces,  whence  the  produced  fluid  exhales ;  at  others  it 
oozes  from  the  bottom  of  little  cavities.  Before  these  arterial  ex- 
tremities change  into  veins,  they  most  commonly  give  rise  to  parti- 
cular vessels  that  convey  this  fluid,  which  appears  to  proceed  from 
the  exact  point  of  union  between  the  two  kinds  of  vessels ;  in  this 
case  the  blood  vessels  and  these  latter  form,  by  interlacing,  particu- 
lar bodies  called  conglomerate  or  secretory  glands. 

In  animals  that  have  no  circulation,  in  Insects  particularly,  the 
parts  are  all  bathed  in  the  nutritive  fluid :  each  of  these  parts  draws 
from  it  what  it  requires,  and  if  the  production  of  a  liquid  be  neces- 
sary, proper  vessels  floating  in  the  fluid  take  up  by  their  pores  the 
constituent  elements  of  that  liquid. 

It  is  thus  that  the  blood  incessantly  supports  the  composition  of 
all  the  parts,  and  repairs  the  injuries  arising  from  those  changes 
which  are  the  continual  and  necessary  consequences  of  their  func- 
tions. The  general  ideas  we  form  with  respect  to  this  process  are 
tolerably  clear,  although  we  have  no  distinct  or  detailed  notion  of 
what  passes  at  each  point,  and  for  want  of  knowing  the  chemical 
composition  of  each  part  with  sufiicient  precision,  we  cannot  render 
an  exact  account  of  the  transmutations  necessary  to  effect  it. 

Besides  the  glands  which  separate  from  the  blood  those  fluids  that 
are  destined  for  the  internal  economy,  there  are  some  which  detach 
others  from  it  that  are  to  be  totally  ejected,  either  as  superfluous, 
or  for  some  use  to  the  animal,  as  the  ink  of  the  cuttle-fish,  and  the 
purple  matter  of  various  Mollusca,  See. 

There  is  a  process  or  phenomenon,  infinitely  more  diflicult  to 
comprehend  than  that  of  the  secretions — the  production  of  the  germ. 
We  have  even  seen  that  it  is  to  be  considered  as  almost  incompre- 
hensible ;  but  the  existence  of  the  germ  being  admitted,  the  subject 
presents   no   particular   difficulties.     As  long  as  it  adheres  to  the 


INTRODUCTION.  29 

parent,  it  is  nourished  as  if  it  were  one  of  its  organs,  and  when  it 
detaches  itself,  it  possesses  its  own  life,  which  is  essentially  similar 
to  that  of  the  adult. 

The  germ,  the  embryo,  the  fcetus,  and  the  new-born  animal,  have 
never,  however,  exactly  the  same  form  as  the  adult,  and  the  differ- 
ence is  sometimes  so  great,  that  their  assimilation  has  been  termed  a 
metamorphosis.  Thus,  no  one  not  previously  aware  of  the  fact 
would  suppose  that  the  caterpillar  is  to  become  a  butterfly. 

Every  living  being  is  more  or  less  metamorphosed  in  the  course 
of  its  growth ;  that  is,  it  loses  certain  parts,  and  developes  others. 
The  antennae,  wings,  and  all  the  parts  of  the  butterfly  were  enclosed 
beneath  the  skin  of  the  caterpillar  ;  this  skin  vanishes  along  with  the 
jaws,  feet,  and  other  organs,  that  do  not  remain  with  the  butterfly. 
The  feet  of  the  frog  are  enclosed  by  the  skin  of  the  tadpole  ;  and 
the  tadpole,  to  become  a  frog,  parts  with  its  tail,  mouth,  and  bran- 
chiae. The  child,  at  birth,  loses  its  placenta  and  membranes  ;  at  a 
certain  period  its  thymus  gland  nearly  disappears,  and  it  gradually 
acquires  hair,  teeth,  and  beard  ;  the  relative  size  of  its  organs  is 
altered,  and  its  body  augments  in  a  greater  ratio  than  its  head,  the 
head  more  than  the  internal  ear,  &,c. 

The  place  where  these  germs  are  found,  and  their  germs  them- 
selves are  collectively  styled  the  ovary;  the  canal  through  which, 
when  detached,  they  are  carried  into  the  uterus,  the  oviduct;  the 
cavity  in  which,  in  many  species,  they  are  compelled  to  remain  for 
a  longer  or  shorter  period  previous  to  birth,  the  uterus. 

Of  the  Intellectual  Functions  of  Animals. 

The  impression  of  external  objects  upon  the  individual,  the  pro- 
duction of  a  sensation  or  of  an  image,  is  a  mystery  into  which  the 
human  understanding  cannot  penetrate;  and  materialism  an  hypo- 
thesis, so  much  the  more  conjectural,  as  philosophy  can  furnish  no 
direct  proof  of  the  actual  existence  of  matter.  The  naturalist, 
however,  should  examine  what  appear  to  be  the  material  conditions 
of  sensation,  trace  the  ulterior  operations  of  the  mind,  ascertain  to 
what  point  they  reach  in  each  being,  and  assure  himself  whether 
they  are  not  subject  to  conditions  of  perfection,  dependent  on  the 
organization  of  each  species,  or  on  the  momentary  state  of  each 
individual  body. 

To  enable  a  being  to  perceive,  there  must  be  an  uninterrupted 


30  INTRODUCTIOTf. 

communication  between  the  external  sense  and  the  central  masses 
of  the  medullary  system.  It  is  then  the  modification  only  expe- 
rienced by  these  masses  that  the  mind  perceives:  there  may  also  be 
real  sensations,  without  the  external  organ  being  affected,  and  which 
originate  either  in  the  nervous  chain  of  communication,  or  in  the 
central  mass  itself;  such  are  dreams  and  visions,  or  certain  acci- 
dental sensations. 

By  central  masses,  we  mean  a  part  of  the  nervous  system,  that  is 
so  much  the  more  circumscribed,  as  the  animal  is  more  perfect.  In 
Man,  it  consists  exclusively  of  a  limited  portion  of  the  brain;  but  in 
Reptiles,  it  includes  the  brain  and  the  whole  of  the  medulla,  and  of 
each  of  their  parts  taken  separately,  so  that  the  absence  of  the 
entire  brain  does  not  prevent  sensation.  In  the  inferior  classes  this 
extension  is  still  greater. 

The  perception  acquired  produces  the  image  of  the  sensation 
experienced.  We  trace  to  without  the  cause  of  that  sensation,  and 
thus  acquire  the  idea  of  the  object  that  has  produced  it.  By  a 
necessary  law  of  our  intelligence,  all  ideas  of  material  objects  are 
in  time  and  space. 

The  modifications  experienced  by  the  medullary  masses  leave 
impressions  there  which  are  reproduced-  and  thus  recal  to  the  mind 
images  and  ideas;  this  is  memory,  a  corporeal  faculty  that  varies 
greatly,  according  to  the  age  and  health  of  the  animal. 

Similar  ideas,  or  such  as  have  been  acquired  at  the  same  time, 
recal  each  other;  this  is  the  association  of  ideas.  The  order,  ex- 
tent and  quickness  of  this  association  constitute  the  perfection  of 
memory. 

Every  object  presents  itself  to  the  memory  with  all  its  qualities  or 
with  all  its  accessary  ideas. 

Intelligence  has  the  power  of  separating  these  accessary  ideas 
of  objects,  and  of  combining  those  that  are  alike  in  several  differ- 
ent objects  under  a  general  idea;  the  object  of  which  no  where 
really  exists,  nor  presents  itself  per  se — this  is  abstraction. 

Every  sensation  being^  more  or  less  agreeable  or  disagreeable, 
xperience  and  repeated  essays  soon  show  what  movements  are  re- 
uired  to  procure  the  one  and  avoid  the  other;  and  with  respect  to 
his,  the  intelligence  abstracts  itself  from  the  general  rules  to  direct 
he  will. 

An  agreeable  sensation  being  liable  to  consequences  that  are  not 
so,  and  vice  versa,  the  subsequent  sensations  become  associated  with 


INTRODUCTION.  31 

the  idea  of  the  primitive  one,   and  modify  the  general  rules  framed 
by  intelligence — this  is  prudence. 

From  the  application  of  these  rules  to  general  ideas,  result  cer- 
tain formulas,  which  are  afterwards  easily  adapted  to  particular  cases 
— this  is  called  reasoning. 

A  lively  remembrance  of  primitive  and  associated  sensations,  and 
of  the  impressions  of  pleasure  or  pain  that  belong  to  them,  consti- 
tutes imagination. 

One  privileged  being,  man,  has  the  faculty  of  associating  his  gene- 
ral ideas  with  particular  images  more  or  less  arbitrary,  easily  im- 
pressed upon  the  memory,  and  which  serve  to  recal  the  general  ideas 
they  represent.  These  associated  images  are  styled  signs;  their 
assemblage  is  a  language.  When  the  language  is  composed  of 
images  that  relate  to  the  sense  of  hearing  or  of  sounds,  it  is  termed 
speech,  and  when  relative  to  that  of  sight,  hieroglyphics.  Writing 
is  a  suite  of  images  that  relate  to  the  sense  of  sight,  by  which  we 
represent  the  elementary  sounds,  and  by  combining  them,  all  the 
images  relative  to  the  sense  of  hearing  of  which  speech  is  composed; 
it  is  therefore  only  a  mediate  representation  of  ideas. 

Although,  with  respect  to  the  intellectual  faculties,  the  most  per- 
fect animals  are  infinitely  beneath  man;  it  is  certain  that  their  intel- 
ligence performs  operations  of  the  same  kind.  They  move  in 
consequence  of  sensations  received,  are  susceptible  of  durable  affec- 
tions, and  acquire  by  experience  a  certain  knowledge  of  things,  by 
which  they  are  governed  independently  of  actual  pain  or  pleasure, 
and  by  the  simple  foresight  of  consequences.  When  domesticated, 
they  feel  their  subordination,  know  that  the  being  who  punishes  them 
may  refrain  from  so  doing  if  he  will,  and  when  sensible  of  having 
done  wrong,  or  behold  him  angry,  they  assume  a  suppliant  and  depre- 
cating air.  In  the  society  of  Man  they  become  either  corrupted  or 
improved,  and  are  susceptible  of  emulation  and  jealousy:  they  have 
among  themselves  a  natural  language,  which,  it  is  true,  is  merely  the 
expression  of  their  momentary  sensations,  but  Man  teaches  them  ta 
understand  another,  much  more  complicated,  by  which  he  makes 
known  to  them  his  will,  and  causes  them  to  execute  it. 

To  sum  up  all,  we  perceive  in  the  higher  animals  a  certain  degree 
of  reason,  with  all  its  consequences,  good  and  bad,  and  which  ap- 
pears to  be  about  the  same  as  that  of  children  ere  they  have  learned 
to  speak.  The  lower  we  descend  from  Man  the  weaker  these  facul- 
ties become,  and  at  the  bottom  of  the  scale  we  find  them  reduced 


32  INTRODUCTION. 

to  signs  (at  times  equivocal)  of  sensibility,  that  is,  to  some  few  slight 
movements  to  escape  from  pain.  Between  these  two  extremes,  the 
degrees  are  infinite. 

In  a  great  number  of  animals,  however,  there  exists  another  kind 
of  intelligence,  called  instinct.  This  induces  them  to  certain  actions 
necessary  to  the  preservation  of  the  species,  but  very  often  alto- 
gether foreign  to  the  apparent  wants  of  the  individual;  often  also 
very  complicated,  and  which,  if  attributed  to  intelligence,  would  sup- 
pose a  foresight  and  knowledge  in  the  species  that  perform  them 
infinitely  superior  to  what  can  possibly  be  granted.  These  actions, 
the  result  of  instinct,  are  not  the  effect  of  imitation,  for  very  fre- 
quently the  individuals  who  execute  them-Jiave  never  seen  them 
performed  by  others:  they  are  not  proportioned  to  ordinary  intelli- 
gence, but  become  more  singular,  more  wise,  more  disinterested,  in 
proportion  as  the  animals  belong  to  less  elevated  classes,  and  in  all 
the  rest  of  their  actions  are  more  dull  and  stupid.  They  are  so 
entirely  the  property  of  the  species,  that  all  its  individuals  perform 
them  in  the  same  way  without  ever  improving  them  a  particle. 

The  working  Bees,  for  instance,  have  always  constructed  very 
ingenious  edifices,  agreeably  to  the  rules  of  the  highest  geometry, 
and  destined  to  lodge  and  nourish  a  posterity  not  even  their  own. 
The  soUtary  Bee,  and  the  Wasp  also,  form  highly  complicated  nests, 
in  which  to  deposit  their  eggs.  From  this  egg  comes  a  worm,  which 
has  never  seen  its  parent,  which  is  ignorant  of  the  structure  of  the 
prison  in  which  it  is  confined,  but  which,  once  metamorphosed,  con- 
structs another  precisely  similar. 

The  only  method  of  obtaining  a  clear  idea  of  instinct  is  by  admit- 
ting the  existence  of  innate  and  perpetual  images  or  sensations  in 
the  sensorium  which  cause  the  animal  to  act  in  the  same  way  as 
ordinary  or  accidental  sensations  usually  do.  It  is  a  kind  of  perpe- 
tual vision  or  dream  that  always  pursues  it,  and  it  may  be  considered, 
in  all  that  has  relation  to  its  instinct,  as  a  kind  of  somnambulism. 

There  is  no  visible  mark  of  instinct  in  the  conformation  of  the 
animal,  but,  as  well  as  it  can  be  ascertained,  the  intelhgence  is  always 
in  proportion  to  the  relative  size  of  the  brain,  and  particularly  of  its 
hemispheres. 

Of  Method,  as  applied  to  the  Animal  Kingdom. 
From  what  has  been  stated  with  respect  to  methods  in  general,  we 


INTRODUCTION.  33 

have  now  to  ascertain  what  are  the  essential  characters  in  animals, 
on  which  their  primary  divisions  are  to  be  founded.  It  is  evident 
they  should  be  those  which  are  drawn  from  the  animal  functions,  that 
is  from  the  sensations,  and  motions;  for  both  these  not  only  make 
the  being  an  animal,  but  in  a  manner  establish  its  degree  of  ani- 
mality. 

Observation  confirms  this  position  by  showing  that  their  degrees 
of  development  and  complication  accord  with  those  of  the  organs  of 
the  vegetative  functions. 

The  heart  and  the  organs  of  the  circulation  form  a  kind  of  centre 
for  the  vegetative  functions,  as  the  brain  and  the  trunk  of  the  nervous 
system  do  for  the  animal  ones.  Now  we  see  these  two  systems 
become  imperfect  and  disappear  together.  In  the  lowest  class  of 
animals,  where  the  nerves  cease  to  be  visible,  the  fibres  are  no  longer 
distinct,  and  the  organs  of  digestion  are  simple  excavations  in  the 
homogeneous  mass  of  the  body.  In  insects  the  vascular  system  even 
disappears  before  the  nervous  one;  but,  in  general,  the  dispersion  of 
the  medullary  masses  accompanies  that  of  the  muscular  agents:  a 
spinal  marrow,  on  which  the  knots  or  ganglions  represent  so  many 
brains,  corresponds  to  a  body  divided  into  numerous  rings,  supported 
by  pairs  of  limbs  longitudinally  distributed,  &c. 

This  correspondence  of  general  forms,  which  results  from  the 
arrangement  of  the  organs  of  motion,  the  distribution  of  the  nervous 
masses,  and  the  energy  of  the  circulating  system,  should  then  be  the 
basis  of  the  primary  divisions  of  the  animal  kingdom.  We  will 
afterwards  ascertain,  in  each  of  these  divisions,  what  characters 
should  succeed  immediately  to  those,  and  form  the  basis  of  the  pri- 
mary subdivisions. 

General  distribution  of  the  Animal  Kingdom  into  Four  Great  Di- 
visions. 

If,  divesting  ourselves  of  the  prejudices  founded  on  the  divisions 
formerly  admitted,  we  consider  only  the  organization  and  nature  of 
animals,  without  regard  to  their  size,  utility,  the  greater  or  less 
knowledge  we  have  of  them,  and  other  accessary  circumstances,  we 
shall  find  there  are  four  principal  forms,  four  general  plans,  if  it  may 
be  so  expressed,  on  which  all  animals  seem  to  have  been  modelled, 
and  whose  ulterior  divisions,  whatever  be  the  titles  with  which  natu- 
ralists have  decorated  them,  are  merely  slight  modifications,  founded 
E 


34  INTRODUCTION. 

on  the  development  or  addition  of  certain  parts,  which  produce  no 
essential  change  in  the  plan  itself. 

In  the  first  of  these  forms,  which  is  that  of  Man,  and  of  the  ani- 
mals most  nearly  resembling  him,  the  brain  and  principal  trunk  of 
the  nervous  system  are  enclosed  in  a  bony  envelope,  formed  by  the 
cranium  and  vertebrse;  to  the  sides  of  this  intermedial  column  are 
attached  the  ribs,  and  bones  of  the  limbs,  which  form  the  frame 
work  of  the  body;  the  muscles  generally  cover  the  bones,  whose 
motions  they  occasion,  while  the  viscera  are  contained  within  the 
head  and  trunk.     Animals  of  this  form  we  shall  denominate 

Animalia  Vertebrata, 

Or  vertebrated  animals.  They  have,  all,  red  blood,  a  muscular 
heart,  a  mouth  furnished  with  two  jaws,  one  situated  either  above  or 
before  the  other,  distinct  organs  of  sight,  hearing,  smell  and  taste 
placed  in  the  cavities  of  the  face;  never  more  than  four  limbs,  the 
sexes  always  separated,  and  a  very  similar  distribution  of  the  me- 
dullary masses  and  the  principal  branches  of  the  nervous  system. 

By  a  closer  examination  of  each  of  the  parts  of  this  great  series 
of  animals,  we  always  discover  some  analogy,  even  in  species  the 
most  remote  from  each  other;  and  may  trace  the  gradations  of  one 
same  plan  from  Man  to  the  last  of  the  Fishes. 

In  the  second  form  there  is  no  skeleton;  the  muscles  are  merely 
attached  to  the  skin,  which  constitutes  a  soft  contractile  envelope,  in 
which,  in  many  species,  are  formed  stony  plates,  called  shells,  whose 
position  and  production  are  analogous  to  those  of  the  mucous  body. 
The  nervous  system  is  contained  within  this  general  envelope  along 
with  the  viscera,  and  is  composed  of  several  scattered  masses  con- 
nected by  nervous  filaments;  the  chief  of  these  masses  is  placed  on 
the  oesophagus,  and  is  called  the  brain.  Of  the  four  senses,  the 
organs  of  two  only  are  observable,  those  of  taste  and  sight,  the  lat- 
ter of  which  are  even  frequently  wanting.  One  single  family  alone 
presents  organs  of  hearing.  There  is  always,  however,  a  complete 
system  of  circulation,  and  particular  organs  for  respiration.  Those 
of  digestion  and  secretion  are  nearly  as  complex  as  in  the  Vertebrata. 
We  will  distinguish  the  animals  of  this  second  form  by  the  appella- 
tion of 


INTRODUCTION.  35 


Animalia  Mollusca, 

Or  soft  animals.  Although,  as  respects  the  external  configura- 
tion of  the  parts,  the  general  plan  of  their  organization  is  not  as 
uniform  as  that  of  the  Vertebrata;  there  is  always  an  equal  degree 
of  resemblance  between  ihem  in  the  structure  and  the  functions. 

The  third  form  is  that  remarked  in  Worms,  Insects,  &c.  Their 
nervous  system  consists  of  two  long  cords,  running  longitudi- 
nally through  the  abdomen,  dilated  at  intervals  into  knots  or  gan- 
glions. The  first  of  these  knots,  placed  over  the  (Esophagus,  and 
called  brain,  is  scarcely  any  larger  than  those  that  are  along  the  ab- 
domen, with  which  they  communicate  by  filaments  that  encircle  the 
oesophagus  like  a  necklace.  The  covering  or  envelope  of  the  body 
is  divided  by  transverse  folds  into  a  certain  number  of  rings,  whose 
teguments  are  sometimes  soft,  and  sometimes  hard;  the  muscles, 
however,  being  always  situated  internally.  Articulated  limbs  are 
frequently  attached  to  the  trunk;  but  very  often  there  are  none. 
We  will  call  these  animals 

Animalia  Articulata^ 

Or  articulated  animals,  in  which  is  observed  the  transition  from 
the  circulation  in  closed  vessels,  to  nutrition  by  imbibition,  and  the 
corresponding  one  of  respiration  in  circumscribed  organs,  to  that 
effected  by  tracheae  or  air-vessels  distributed  throughout  the  body. 
In  them,  the  organs  of  taste  and  sight  are  the  most  distinct;  one 
single  family  alone  presenting  that  of  hearing.  Their  jaws,  when 
they  have  any,  are  always  lateral. 

The  fourth  form,  which  embraces  all  those  animals  known  by  the 
name  of  Zoophytes,  may  also  properly  be  denominated 

Animalia  Radiata, 

Or  radiated  animals.  We  have  seen  that  the  organs  of  sense  and 
motion  in  all  the  preceding  ones  are  symmetrically  arranged  on  the 
two  sides  of  an  axis.  There  is  a  posterior  and  anterior  dissimilar 
face.     In  this  last  division,  they  are  disposed  like  rays  round  a  cen- 


36  INTRODUCTION. 

tre;  and  this  is  the  case  even  when  they  consist  of  but  two  series, 
for  then  the  two  faces  are  similar.  They  approximate  to  the  homo- 
geneity of  plants,  having  no  very  distinct  nervous  system  or  particu- 
lar organs  of  sense;  in  some  of  them,  it  is  even  difficult  to  discover 
a  vestige  of  circulation;  their  respiratory  organs  are  almost  univer- 
sally seated  on  the  surface  of  the  body,  and  the  lowest  of  the  series 
are  nothing  but  a  sort  of  homogeneous  pulp,  endowed  with  motion 
and  sensibility. 


FIRST  GREAT   DIVISION   OF   THE   ANIMAL 
KINGDOM. 

ANIMALIA  VERTEBRATA. 

The  bodies  and  limbs  of  vertebrated  animals  being  supported  by 
a  frame-work  or  skeleton  composed  of  connected  pieces  that  are 
movable  upon  each  other,  their  motions  are  certain  and  vigorous. 
The  solidity  of  this  support  enables  them  to  attain  considerable  size, 
and  it  is  among  them  that  the  largest  animals  are  found. 

The  great  concentration  of  the  nervous  system,  and  the  volume^f 
its  central  portions,  give  energy  and  stability  to  their  sentiments, 
whence  result  superior  intelligence  and  perfectibility. 

Their  body  always  consists  of  a  head,  trunk  and  members. 

The  head  is  formed  by  the  cranium  which  contains  the  brain,  and 
by  the  face  which  is  composed  of  two  jaws  and  of  the  receptacles  of 
the  senses. 

The  trunk  is  supported  by  the  spine  and  the  ribs. 

The  spine  is  formed  of  vertebrje,  the  first  of  which  supports  the 
head,  that  move  upon  each  other,  and  are  perforated  by  an  annular 
opening,  forming  together  a  canal,  in  which  is  lodged  that  medullary 
production  from  which  arise  the  nerves,  called  the  spinal  marrow. 

The  spine,  most  commonly,  is  continued  into  a  tail,  extending 
beyond  the  posterior  members. 

The  ribs  are  a  kind  of  semicircular  hoops  which  protect  the  sides 
of  the  cavity  of  the  trunk;  they  are  articulated  at  one  extremity  with 
the  vertebrae,  and  most  generally  at  the  other  with  the  sternum  : 


38  ANIMALIA  VERTEBRATA. 

sometimes,  however,  they  do  not  encircle  the  trunk,  and  there  are 
genera  in  which  they  are  hardly  visible. 

There  are  never  more  than  two  pairs  of  members,  but  sometimes 
one  or  the  other  is  wanting,  or  even  both.  Their  forms  vary  ac- 
cording to  the  movements  they  have  to  execute.  The  superior 
members  are  converted  into  hands,  feet,  wings  or  fins,  and  the  infe- 
rior into  feet  or  fins. 

The  blood  is  always  red,  and  appears  to  be  so  composed  as  to 
sustain  a  peculiar  energy  of  sentiment  and  muscular  strength,  but  in 
various  degrees,  corresponding  to  their  quality  of  respiration  :  from 
which  originates  the  subdivision  of  the  Vertebrata  into  four  classes. 

The  external  senses  are  always  five  in  number,  and  reside  in  two 
eyes,  two  ears,  two  nostrils,  the  teguments  of  the  tongue,  and  those 
of  the  body,  generally.  In  some  species,  how^ever,  the  eyes  are 
obliterated. 

The  nerves  reach  the  medulla  through  the  foramina  of  the  ver- 
tebras or  those  of  the  cranium  ;  they  all  seem  to  unite  with  this 
medulla,  which,  after  crossing  its  filaments,  spreads  out  to  form  the 
various  lobes  of  which  the  brain  is  composed,  and  terminates  in  the 
two  medullary  arches  called  hemispheres,  whose  volume  is  in  pro- 
portion to  the  extent  of  the  inteUigence. 

There  are  always  two  jaws,  the  greatest  motion  is  in  the  lower 
one,  which  rises  and  falls  ;  the  upper  jaw  is  sometimes  immovable. 
Both  of  these  are  almost  always  armed  with  teeth,  excrescences  of 
a  peculiar  nature,  which  in  their  chemical  composition  are  very 
similar  to  that  of  bone,  but  which  grow  by  layers  and  transudation; 
one  whole  class,  however,  that  of  Birds,  has  the  jaws  invested  with 
horn,  and  the  genus  Testudo,  in  the  class  of  Reptiles,  is  in  the  same 
case. 

The  intestinal  canal  traverses  the  body,  experiencing  various 
enlargements  and  contractions,  having  appendages  and  receiving 
solvent  fluids,  one  of  which,  the  saliva,  is  discharged  into  the  mouth. 
The  others,  which  are  poured  into  the  intestine  only,  have  various 
names:  the  two  principal  ones  are  the  juices  of  the  gland  called  the 
pancreas,  and  bile,  a  product  of  another  very  large  gland  named  the 
liver. 

While  the  digested  aliment  is  traversing  its  canal,  that  portion  of 
it  which  is  fitted  for  nutrition,  called  the  chyle,  is  absorbed  by  par- 
ticular vessels  styled  lacteals,  and  carried  into  the  veins  ;  the  residue 


ANIMALIA  VERTEBRATA.  39 

of  the  nourishment  of  the  parts  is  also  carried  into  the  veins  by  vess- 
els analogous  to  these  lacteals,  and  forming  with  them  one  same 
system  called  the  lymphatic  system. 

The  blood  which  has  served  to  nourish  the  parts,  and  which  has 
just  been  renewed  by  the  chyle  and  lymph,  is  returned  to  the  heart 
by  the  veins — but  this  blood  is  obliged,  either  wholly  or  in  part,  to 
pass  into  the  organ  of  respiration,  in  order  to  regain  its  arterial  na- 
ture, previous  to  being  again  sent  through  the  system  by  the  arteries. 
In  the  three  first  classes  this  respiratory  organ  consists  of  lungs,  that 
is,  a  collection  of  cells  into  which  air  penetrates.  In  Fishes  only, 
and  in  some  Reptiles,  while  young,  it  consists  of  branchiee  or  a  series 
of  laminae,  between  which  water  passes. 

In  all  the  Vertebrata,  the  blood  which  furnishes  the  liver  with  the 
materials  of  the  bile  is  venous  blood,  which  has  circulated  partly  in 
the  parietes  of  the  intestines,  and  partly  in  a  peculiar  body  called 
the  spleen,  and  which,  after  being  united  in  a  trunk  called  the  vence 
porta^  is  again  subdivided  at  the  liver. 

Subdivision  of  ike  Vertebrata  into  Four  Classes. 

We  have  just  seen  how  far  vertebrated  animals  resemble  each 
other;  they  present,  however,  four  great  subdivisions  or  classes, 
characterised  by  the  kind  or  power  of  their  motions,  which  depend 
themselves  on  the  quantity  of  their  respiration,  inasmuch  as  it  is 
from  this  respiration  that  the  muscular  fibres  derive  the  strength  of 
their  irritability. 

The  quantity  of  respiration  depends  upon  two  agents:  the  first  is 
the  relative  amount  of  blood  which  is  poured  into  the  respiratory 
organ  in  a  given  instant  of  time;  the  second  is  the  relative  amount 
of  oxygen  which  enters  into  the  composition  of  the  surrounding 
fluid.  The  quantity  of  the  former  depends  upon  the  disposition  of 
the  organs  of  circulation  and  respiration. 

The  organs  of  the  circulation  may  be  double,  so  that  all  the 
blood  which  is  brought  back  from  the  various  parts  of  the  body  by 
the  veins,  is  forced  to  circulate  through  the  respiratory  organ,  pre- 
vious to  resuming  its  former  course  through  the  arteries;  or  they 
may  be  simple,  so  that  a  part  only  of  the  blood  is  obliged  to  pass 
through  that  organ,  the  remainder  returning  directly  to  the  body. 

'J'he  latter  is  the  case  with  Reptiles.     The  (juantity  of  tiieii    respi- 


40  ANIMALIA  VERTEBRATA. 

ration,  and  all  their  qualities  which  depend  on  it,  vary  with  the 
amount  of  blood  thrown  into  the  lungs  at  each  pulsation. 

Fishes  have  a  double  circulation,  but  their  organ  of  respiration 
is  formed  to  execute  its  function  through  the  medium  of  water;  and 
their  blood  is  only  acted  on  by  the  portion  .of  oxygen  it  contains,  so 
that  the  quantity  of  their  respiration  is  perhaps  less  than  that  of 
reptiles. 

In  the  Mammalia  the  circulation  is  double,  and  the  aerial  respi- 
ration simple,  that  is,  it  is  performed  in  the  lungs  only;  their  quan- 
tity of  respiration  is,  consequently,  superior  to  that  of  Reptiles,  on 
account  of  the  form  of  their  respiratory  organ,  and  to  that  of  Fishes 
from  the  nature  of  their  surrounding  element. 

The  quantity  of  respiration  in  Birds  is  even  superior  to  that  of 
Quadrupeds,  not  only  because  they  have  a  double  circulation  and  an 
aerial  respiration,  but  also  because  they  respire  by  many  other  cavi- 
ties besides  the  lungs,  the  air  penetrating  throughout  their  bodies, 
and  bathing  the  branches  of  the  aorta,  as  well  as  those  of  the  pul- 
monary artery. 

Hence  result  the  four  different  kinds  of  motion  for  which  the  four 
classes  of  verteb rated  animals  are  more  particularly  designed; 
Quadrupeds^  in  which  the  quantity  of  respiration  is  moderate,  are 
generally  formed  to  walk  and  run,  both  motions  being  characterized 
by  precision  and  vigour;  Birds,  which  have  more  of  it,  possess  the 
muscular  strength  and  lightness  requisite  for  flight;  Reptiles,  where 
it  is  diminished,  are  condemned  to  creep,  and  many  of  them  pass  a 
portion  of  their  lives  in  a  kind  of  torpor;  Fishes,  in  fine,  to  execute 
their  motions,  require  to  be  supported  in  a  fluid  whose  specific  gra- 
vity is  nearly  as  great  as  their  own. 

All  the  circumstances  of  organization  peculiar  to  each  of  these 
four  classes,  and  those  especially  which  regard  motion  and  the  ex- 
ternal sensations,  have  a  necessary  relation  with  these  essential 
characters. 

The  Mammalia,  however,  have  particular  characters  in  their 
viviparous  mode  of  production,  in  the  mammse  by  which  they  suckle 
their  young,  &c. 

The  other  classes,  on  the  contrary,  are  oviparous,  and  if  we  com- 
pare them  to  the  first,  we  shall  find  such  numerous  points  of  resem- 
blance as  announce  a  peculiar  system  of  organization  in  the  great 
general  plan  of  the  Vertebrata. 


MAMMALIA.  41 


CLASS  I. 

MAMMALIA. 

The  Mammalia  are  placed  at  the  head  of  the  animal  kingdom, 
not  only  because  it  is  the  class  to  which  Man  himself  belongs,  but 
also  because  it  is  that  which  enjoys  the  most  numerous  faculties,  the 
most  delicate  sensations,  the  most  varied  powers  of  motion,  and  in 
which  all  the  different  qualities  seem  combined  in  order  to  produce 
a  more  perfect  degree  of  intelligence,  the  one  most  fertile  in  resources, 
most  susceptible  of  perfection,  and  least  the  slave  of  instinct. 

As  their  quantity  of  respiration  is  moderate,  they  are  designed 
in  general  for  walking  on  the  earth;  but  with  vigorous  and  continued 
steps.  The  forms  of  the  articulations  of  their  skeleton  are,  conse- 
quently, strictly  defined,  which  determines  all  their  motions  with  the 
most  rigorous  precision. 

Some  of  them,  however,  by  means  of  limbs  considerably  elon- 
gated, and  extended  membranes,  raise  themselves  in  the  air;  others 
have  them  so  shortened,  that  they  can  move  with  facility  in  water 
only,  though  this  does  not  deprive  them  of  the  general  characters  of 
the  class. 

The  upper  jaw,  in  all  these  animals,  is  fixed  to  the  cranium; 
the  lower  is  formed  of  two  pieces  only,  articulated  by  a  projecting 
condyle  to  a  fixed  temporal  bone;  the  neck  consists  of  seven  verte- 
brae, one  single  species  excepted  which  ha^  nine;  the  anterior  ribs 
are  attached  before,  by  cartilage,  to  a  sternum  consisting  of  several 
vertical  pieces;  their  anterior  extremity  commences  in  a  shoulder- 
blade  that  is  not  articulated,  but  simply  suspended  in  the  flesh,  often 
resting  on  the  sternum  by  means  of  an  intermediate  bone,  called  a 
clavicle.  This  extremity  is  continued  by  an  arm,  a  fore-arm,  and  a 
hand,  the  latter  being  composed  of  two  ranges  of  small  bones  called 
the  carpus,  of  another  range  called  the  metacarpus,  and  of  the 
fingers,  each  of  which  consists  of  two  or  three  bones,  termed  pha- 
langes. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Cetacea,  the  first  part  of  the  posterior 
extremity,  in  all  animals  of  this  class,  is  fixed  to  the  spine,  forming 
F 


42  MAMMALIA. 

a  girdle  or  pelvis,  which,  in  youth,  consists  of  three  pairs  of  bones, 
the  ilium  which  is  attached  to  the  spine,  the  pubis  which  forms  the 
anterior  part  of  the  girdle,  and  the  ischium,  the  posterior.  At  the 
point  of  union  of  these  three  bones  is  situated  the  cavity  with  which 
the  thigh  is  articulated,  to  which,  in  its  turn,  is  attached  the  leg, 
formed  of  two  bones,  the  tibia  and  fibula;  this  extremity  is  termi- 
nated by  parts  similar  to  those  of  the  hand,  i.  e.  by  a  tarsus,  meta- 
tarsus and  toes. 

The  head  of  the  mammalia  is  always  articulated  by  two  condyles, 
with  the  atlas,  the  first  vertebra  of  the  neck. 

The  brain  is  always  composed  of  two  hemispheres,  united  by  a 
medullary  layer,  called  the  corpus  callosum^  containing  the  ventri- 
cles, and  enveloping  four  pairs  of  tubercles,  named  the  corpora 
striata  or  striated  bodies,  the  thalami  nervorum  opticorum  or  beds 
of  the  optic  nerves,  and  the  nates^  and  testes.  Between  the  optic 
beds  is  a  third  ventricle,  which  communicates  with  a  fourth  under 
the  cerebellum,  the  crura  of  which  always  form  a  transverse  promi- 
nence under  the  medulla  oblongata,  called  the  pons  Varolii,  or 
bridge  of  Varolius. 

The  eye,  invariably  lodged  in  its  orbit,  is  protected  by  two  lids 
and  a  vestige  of  a  third,  and  has  its  crystalline  fixed  by  the  ciliary 
processes — its  sclerotic  is  sim.ply  cellular. 

The  ear  always  contains  a  cavity  called  the  tympanum,  or  drum, 
which  communicates  with  the  mouth  by  the  Eustachian  tube;  the 
cavity  itself  is  closed  externally  by  a  membrane  called  the  membrana 
tympani,  and  contains  a  chain  of  four  little  bones,  named  the  incus 
or  anvil,  malleus  or  hammer,  the  os  orbiculare  or  circular  bone,  and 
the  stapes  or  stirrup;  a  vestibule,  on  the  entrance  of  which  rests  the 
stapes,  and  which  communicates  with  three  semicircular  canals;  and 
finally,  a  cochlea,  which  terminates  by  one  canal  in  the  vestibule,  and 
by  the  other  in  the  tympanum. 

Their  cranium  is  subdivided  into  three  portions;  the  anterior  is 
formed  by  the  two  frontal  and  ethmoidal  bones,  the  middle  by  the 
two  ossa  parietalia  and  the  os  ethmoides,  and  the  posterior  by  the 
OS  occipitis.  Between  the  ossa  parietalia,  the  sphenoidalis  and  the 
OS  occipitis,  are  interposed  the  two  temporal  bones,  part  of  which 
belong  properly  to  the  face. 

In  the  foetus,  the  occipital  bone  is  divided  into  four  parts:  the  sphe- 
noidal into  two  halves,  which  are  again  subdivided  into  three  pairs 
of  lateral  wings;  the  temporal  into  three,  one  of  which  serves  to 


MAMMALIA.  43 

complete  the  cranium,  the  second  to  close  the  labyrinth  of  the  ear, 
the  third  to  form  the  parietes  of  the  tympanum,  &c.  These  bony 
portions,  still  more  numerous  in  the  earliest  period  of  the  fcetal  ex- 
istence, are  united  more  or  less  promptly,  according  to  the  species, 
and  the  bones  themselves  finally  become  consolidated  in  the  adult. 

Their  face  consists  of  the  two  maxillary  bones,  between  which  pass 
the  nostrils;  the  two  intermaxillaries  are  situated  before,  and  the  two 
ossa  palati  behind  them;  between  these  descends  the  vomer,  a  bony 
process  of  the  os  ethmoides;  at  the  entrance  of  the  nasal  canal  are 
placed  the  ossa  nassi;  to  its  external  parietes  adhere  the  inferior 
turbinated  bones,  the  superior  ones  which  occupy  its  upper  and  pos- 
terior portion  belonging  to  the  os  ethmoides.  The  jugal  or  cheek 
bone  unites  the  maxillary  to  the  temporal  bone  on  each  side,  and 
frequently  to  the  os  frontis;  finally,  the  os  unguis,  and  pars  plana  of 
the  ethmoid  bone  occupy  the  internal  angle  of  the  orbit,  and  some- 
times a  part  of  the  cheek.  In  the  embryo  state  these  bones  also 
are  much  more  subdivided. 

Their  tongue  is  always  fleshy,  connected  with  a  bone  called  the 
hyoides,  which  is  composed  of  several  pieces,  and  suspended  from 
the  cranium  by  ligaments. 

Their  lungs,  two  in  number,  divided  into  lobes,  and  composed  of 
an  infinitude  of  cells,  are  always  enclosed,  without  any  adhesion,  in 
a  cavity  formed  by  the  ribs  and  diaphragm  and  lined  by  the  pleura; 
the  organ  of  voice  is  always  at  the  upper  extremity  of  the  trachea; 
a  fleshy  curtain,  called  the  velum  palati,  establishes  a  direct  com- 
munication between  their  larynx  and  nasal  canal. 

Their  residence  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  rendering  them  less 
exposed  to  the  alternations  of  cold  and  heat,  their  tegument  (hair) 
is  but  moderately  thick,  and  in  such  as  inhabit  warm  climates,  even 
that  is  rare. 

The  Cetacea,  which  live  exclusively  in  water,  are  the  only  ones 
that  are  altogether  deprived  of  it. 

The  young  are  nourished  for  some  time  after  birth  by  a  fluid  (milk) 
peculiar  to  animals  of  this  class,  which  is  produced  by  the  mammae 
at  the  time  of  parturition,  and  continues  to  be  so  as  long  as  is  necess- 
ary. It  is  from  the  wiamwKB  that  this  class  derives  its  name,  and 
being  a  character  peculiar  to  it,  they  distinguish  it  better  than  any 
other  that  is  external. 


44  MAMMALIA. 


Division  of  the  Mammalia  into  Orders. 

The  variable  characters  which  form  essential  differences  among 
the  Mammalia  are  taken  from  the  organs  of  touch,  on  which  depends 
their  degree  of  ability  or  address,  and  from  the  organs  of  manduca- 
tion,  which  determine  the  nature  of  their  aliment,  and  are  all  closely 
connected,  not  only  with  every  thing  relative  to  the  function  of  di- 
gestion, but  also  with  a  multitude  of  other  differences  relating  even 
to  their  intelligence. 

The  degree  of  perfection  of  the  organs  of  touch  is  estimated  by 
the  number  and  the  pliability  of  the  fingers,  and  from  the  greater  or 
less  extent  to  which  their  extremities  are  enveloped  by  the  nail  or 
the  hoof. 

A  hoof  which  completely  envelopes  the  end  of  the  toe,  blunts  its 
sensibility,  and  renders  the  foot  incapable  of  seizing. 

The  opposite  extreme  is  when  a  nail,  formed  of  one  single  lamina, 
covers  only  one  of  the  faces  of  the  extremity  of  the  finger,  leaving 
the  other  possessed  of  all  its  delicacy. 

The  nature  of  the  food  is  known  by  the  grinders,  to  the  form  of 
which  the  articulation  of  the  jaws  universally  corresponds. 

To  cut  flesh,  grinders  are  required  as  trenchant  as  a  saw,  and 
jaws  fitted  like  scissars,  having  no  other  motion  than  a  vertical  one. 
For  bruising  roots  or  grains,  flat-crowned  grinders  are  necessary, 
and  jaws  that  have  a  lateral  motion;  in  order  that  inequalities  may 
always  exist  on  the  crown  of  these  teeth,  it  is  also  requisite  that 
their  substance  be  composed  of  parts  of  unequal  hardness,  so  that 
some  may  wear  away  faster  than  others. 

Hoofed  animals  are  all  necessarily  herbivorous,  and  have  flat- 
crowned  grinders,  inasmuch  as  their  feet  preclude  the  possibility  of 
their  seizing  a  living  prey. 

Animals  with  unguiculated  fingers  were  susceptible  of  more 
variety;  their  food  is  of  all  kinds,  and  independently  of  the  form  of 
their  grinders,  they  differ  greatly  from  each  other  in  the  pliability 
and  delicacy  of  their  fingers.  There  is  one  character  with  respect 
to  this,  which  has  immense  influence  on  their  dexterity,  and  greatly 
multiplies  its  powers;  it  is  the  faculty  of  opposing  the  thumb  to  the 
finger  for  the  purpose  of  seizing  minute  objects,  constituting  what  is 
properly  called  a  hand;  a  faculty  which  is  carried  to  its  highest  per- 


MAMMALIA.  45 

fection  in  man,  in  whom  the  whole  anterior  extremity  is  free  and 
capable  of  prehension. 

These  various  combinations,  which  strictly  determine  the  nature 
of  the  different  mammalia,  have  given  rise  to  the  following  orders: 


ORDER  I. 
BlMANA(l). 

Man  forms  but  one  genus,  and  that  genus  the  only  one  of  its 
order.  As  his  history  is  the  more  directly  interesting  to  ourselves, 
and  forms  the  point  of  comparison  to  which  we  refer  that  of  other 
animals,  we  will  speak  of  it  more  in  detail. 

We  will  rapidly  sketch  every  thing  that  is  peculiar  in  each  of 
his  organic  systems,  amidst  all  that  he  shares  in  common  with  other 
Mammalia;  we  will  examine  the  advantages  he  derives  from  these 
peculiarities  over  other  species;  we  will  describe  the  principal  varie- 
ties of  his  race  and  their  distinguishing  characters,  and  finally  point 
out  the  natural  order  in  which  his  individual  and  social  faculties  are 
developed. 

Peculiar  Conformation  of  Man. 

The  foot  of  Man  is  very  different  from  that  of  the  Monkey;  it  is  large; 
the  leg  bears  vertically  upon  it;  the  heel  is  expanded  beneath;  the  toes 
are  short,  and  but  slightly  flexible;  the  great  toe,  longer  and  larger  than 
the  rest,  is  placed  on  the  same  line  with,  and  cannot  be  opposed  to  them. 
This  foot,  then,  is  peculiarly  well  adapted  to  support  the  body;  but  cannot 
be  used  for  seizing  or  climbing,  and  as  the  hands  are  not  calculated  for 
walking,  Man  is  the  only  true  bimanous  and  biped  animal. 

The  whole  body  of  Man  is  arranged  with  a  view  to  a  vertical  position. 
Were  he  to  desire  it,  Man  could  not,  with  convenience,  walk  on  all  fours; 
his  short  and  nearly  inflexible  feet,  and  his  long  thigh,  would  bring  the 
knee  to  the  ground;  his  widely  separated  shoulders  and  his  arms,  too  far 
extended  from  the  median  line,  would  ill  support  the  upper  portion  of 
his  body.  The  great  indented  muscle,  which,  in  quadrupeds,  suspends, 
as  in  a  girth,  the  body  between  the  scapulae,  is  smaller  in  Man  than  in  any 
one  among  them.  The  head  is  also  heavier,  both  from  the  magnitude  of 
the  brain  and  the  smallness  of  the  sinuses  or  cavities  of  the  bones;  and  yet 


(1)  Animals  with  two  hands. 


46  MAMMALIA. 

the  means  of  supporting  it  are  weaker,  for  he  has  neither  a  cervical  ligament, 
nor  are  his  vertebrx  so  arranged  as  to  prevent  their  flexure  forwards;  the 
result  of  this  would  be,  that  he  could  only  keep  his  head  in  the  same  line 
with  the  spine,  and  then  his  eyes  and  mouth  being  directed  towards  the 
earth,  he  could  not  see  before  him; — in  the  erect  position,  on  the  contrary, 
tlie  arrangement  of  these  organs  is  every  way  perfect. 

The  arteries  which  are  sent  to  his  brain,  not  being  subdivided  as  in  many 
quadrupeds,  and  the  blood  requisite  for  so  voluminous  an  organ  being  car- 
ried into  it  with  too  much  violence,  frequent  apoplexies  would  be  the  con- 
sequence of  a  horizontal  position. 

Man,  then,  is  formed  for  an  erect  position  only.  He  thus  preserves  the 
entire  use  of  his  hands  for  the  arts,  while  his  organs  of  sense  are  most 
favourably  situated  for  observation. 

These  hands,  which  derive  such  advantages  from  their  liberty,  receive 
as  many  more  from  their  structure.  Tlie  thumb,  longer  in  proportion  than 
that  of  the  Monkey,  increases  its  facility  of  seizing  small  objects.  All  the 
fingers,  the  annularis  excepted,  have  separate  movements,  a  faculty  possess- 
ed by  no  other  animal,  not  even  by  the  Monkey.  The  nail,  covering  one 
side  only  of  the  extremity  of  the  finger,  acts  as  a  support  to  the  touch, 
without  depriving  it  of  an  atom  of  its  delicacy.  The  arms  to  which  these 
hands  are  attached,  are  strongly  and  firmly  connected  by  the  large  scapula, 
the  strong  clavicle,  &c. 

Man,  so  highly  favoured  as  to  dexterity,  is  not  at  all  so  with  respect  to 
force.  His  swiftness  in  running  is  greatly  inferior  to  that  of  other  animals 
of  his  size.  Having  neither  projecting  jaws,  nor  salient  canine  teeth,  nor 
claws,  he  is  destitute  of  offensive  weapons;  and  the  sides  and  upper  parts 
of  his  body  being  naked,  unprovided  even  with  hair,  he  is  absolutely  with- 
out defensive  ones.  Of  all  animals,  he  is  also  the  longest  in  attaining  the 
power  necessaiy  to  provide  for  himself. 

This  very  weakness,  however,  is  but  one  advantage  more — it  compels 
him  to  have  recourse  to  that  intelligence  within,  for  which  he  is  so  emi- 
nently conspicuous. 

No  quadruped  approaches  him  in  the  magnitude  and  convolutions  of  the 
hemispheres  of  the  brain,  that  is,  in  the  part  of  this  organ  which  is  the 
principal  instrument  of  the  intellectual  operations.  The  posterior  portion 
of  the  same  organ  extends  backwards;  so  as  to  form  a  second  covering  to 
the  cerebellum;  the  ver)'  form  of  his  cranium  announces  this  magnitude  of 
the  brain,  while  the  smallness  of  his  face  shows  how  slightly  that  portion  of 
the  nervous  system  which  influences  the  extei-nal  senses  predominates  in 
him. 

These  external  sensations,  moderate  as  they  all  are  in  Man,  are  neverthe- 
less extremely  dehcate  and  well  balanced. 

His  two  eyes  are  directed  forwards;  he  does  not  see  on  two  sides  at  once, 
like  many  quadrupeds,  which  produces  more  unity  in  tlie  result  of  his  sight, 
and  concentrates  his  attention  more  closely  on  sensations  of  this  kind.  The 
ball  and  iris  of  his  eye  vary  but  little;  this  restrains  the  activity  of  his  sight 
to  a  limited  distance,  and  a  determined  degree  of  hght.     His  external  ear, 


BIMANA.  47 

possessing  but  little  mobility  or  extent,  does  not  increase  the  intensity  of 
sounds,  and  yet,  of  all  animals,  he  best  distinguishes  the  various  degrees  of 
intonation.  His  nostrils,  more  complicated  than  those  of  the  Monkey,  are 
less  so  than  those  of  all  other  genera;  and  yet  he  appears  to  be  the  only 
animal  whose  sense  of  smell  is  sufficiently  delicate  to  be  affected  by  un- 
pleasant odours.  Delicacy  of  smell  must  have  some  influence  on  that  of 
taste,  and  independently  of  this  Man  must  have  some  advantage  in  this  re- 
spect over  other  animals,  those  at  least  whose  tongues  are  covered  with 
scales.  Lastly,  the  nicety  of  his  tact  results,  both  from  the  delicacy  of  his 
teguments,  and  the  absence  of  all  insensible  parts,  as  well  as  from  the  form 
of  his  hand,  which  is  better  adapted  than  that  of  any  other  animal  for  suiting 
itself  to  every  little  superficial  inequality. 

Man  is  pre-eminently  distinguished  in  the  organ  of  his  voice;  of  all  the 
Mammalia,  he  alone  possesses  the  faculty  of  articulating  sounds,  its  probable 
causes  being  the  form  of  his  mouth  and  the  great  mobility  of  his  lips. 
From  this  results  his  most  invaluable  mode  of  communication,  for  of  all  the 
signs  which  can  be  conveniently  employed  for  the  transmission  of  ideas, 
variations  of  sound  are  those  wliich.  can  be  perceived  at  the  greatest  dis- 
tance, and  are  the  most  extensive  in  their  sphere  of  operation. 

The  whole  of  his  structure,  even  to  the  heart  and  great  vessels,  appears 
to  have  been  framed  with  a  view  to  a  vertical  position.  The  heart  is  placed 
obliquely,  on  the  diaphragm,  and  its  point  inclines  to  the  left,  thereby  oc- 
casioning a  distribution  of  the  aorta,  dlff"eringfrom  that  of  most  quadrupeds. 

The  natural  food  of  man,  judging  from  his  structure,  appears  to  consist 
of  the  fruits,  roots,  and  other  succulent  parts  of  vegetables;  his  hands  offer 
him  every  facility  for  gathering  them;  his  short,  and  but  moderately  strong 
jaws  on  the  one  hand,  and  his  canini  being  equal  in  length  to  the  remaining 
teeth,  and  his  tubercular  molares  on  the  other,  would  allow  him  neither  to 
feed  on  grass  nor  to  devour  flesh,  were  these  aliments  not  previously  pre- 
pared by  cooking.  Once,  however,  possessed  of  fire,  and  those  arts  by 
which  he  is  aided  in  seizing  animals  or  killing  them  at  a  distance,  every 
living  being  was  rendered  subservient  to  his  nourishment,  thereby  giving 
him  the  means  of  an  infinite  multiplication  of  his  species. 

To  complete  the  hasty  sketch  of  the  anatomical  structure  of  Man  requi- 
site for  this  introduction,  we  will  add,  that  he  has  thirty-two  vertebrae,  of 
•which  seven  belong  to  the  neck,  twelve  to  the  back,  five  to  the  loins,  five 
to  the  sacrum,  and  three  to  the  coccyx.  Seven  pairs  of  his  ribs  are  united 
with  the  sternum  by  elongated  cartilages,  and  are  called  true  ribs;  the  five 
following  pairs  are  denominated  false  ones.  His  adult  cranium  is  formed 
of  eight  bones;  an  occipitalis,  two  ossa  temporis,  two  parietalia,  and  the 
frontal,  ethmoidal  and  sphenoidal  bones.  The  bones  of  his  face  are  foiu-- 
teen  in  number,  two  maxillaries,  two  ossa  malse,  each  of  which  joins  the 
temporal  to  the  maxillary  bone  of  its  own  side  by  a  kind  of  handle  called 
the  zygomatic  arch;  two  nasal  bones,  two  ossa  palati  behind  the  palate,  a 
vomer  between  the  nostrils,  two  turbinated  bones  of  the  nose  in  the  nos- 
trils, two  lacbi7mals  (unguis)  in  the  internal  angles  of  the  orbits  and  the 


48  MAMMALIA. 

single  bone  of  the  lower  jaw.  Each  jaw  has  sixteen  teeth;  four  cutting 
incisors  in  the  middle,  two  pointed  canines  at  the  corners,  and  ten  tubercu- 
lated  molares,  five  on  each  side.  At  the  extremity  of  the  spine  of  his  sca- 
pula, is  a  tuberosity  called  the  acromion,  to  which  the  clavicle  is  attached, 
and  over  its  articulation  is  a  point  called  the  coracoid  process  with  which 
certain  muscles  are  connected.  The  radius  revolves  upon  the  ulna,  owing 
to  the  mode  of  its  articulation  with  the  humerus.  The  carpus  has  eight 
bones,  four  in  each  range;  the  tarsus  has  seven;  those  of  the  remaining 
parts  of  the  hand  and  foot  may  be  easily  counted  by  the  number  of  fingers 
and  toes. 

Physical  and  Moral  Development  of  Man. 

Scarcely  has  the  body  gained  the  full  period  of  its  growth  in  height,  be- 
fore it  begins  to  increase  in  bulk;  fat  accumulates  in  the  cellular  tissue,  the 
different  vessels  become  gradually  obstructed,  the  solids  become  rigid,  and, 
after  a  life  more  or  less  long,  more  or  less  agitated,  more  or  less  painful, 
old  age  arrives  with  decrepitude,  decay,  and  death.  Man  rarely  lives  be- 
yond a  hundred  years,  and  most  of  the  species,  either  from  disease,  acci- 
dent, or  old  age,  perish  long  before  that  term. 

The  child  needs  the  assistance  of  its  mother  much  longer  than  her  milk, 
from  this  it  obtains  an  education  both  moral  and  physical,  and  a  mutual 
attachment  is  created  that  is  fervent  and  durable.  The  nearly  equal  num- 
ber of  the  two  sexes,  the  difficulty  of  supporting  more  than  one  wife,  when 
wealth  does  not  supply  the  want  of  power,  all  go  to  prove  that  monogamy 
is  the  mode  of  union  most  natural  to  our  species.  From  the  long  period  of 
infantile  weakness  springs  domestic  subordination,  and  the  order  of  society 
in  general,  as  the  young  people  which  compose  the  new  families  continue 
to  preserve  with  their  parents  those  tender  relations  to  which  they  have 
so  long  been  accustomed.  This  disposition  to  mutual  assistance  multiplies 
to  an  almost  unlimited  extent  those  advantages  previously  derived  by  insu- 
lated Man  from  his  intelligence;  it  has  assisted  him  to  tame  or  repulse  other 
animals,  to  defend  himself  from  the  effects  of  climate,  and  thus  enabled  him 
to  cover  the  earth  with  his  species. 

In  other  respects,  he  appears  to  possess  nothing  resembling  instinct,  no 
regular  habit  of  industry  produced  by  innate  ideas;  his  knowledge  is  the 
result  of  his  sensations  and  of  his  observation,  or  of  those  of  his  predecess- 
ors. Transmitted  by  speech,  increased  by  meditation,  and  applied  to  his 
necessities  and  his  enjoyments,  they  have  originated  all  the  arts  of  life. 
Language  and  letters,  by  preserving  acquired  knowledge,  are  a  source  of 
indefinite  perfection  to  his  species.  It  is  thus  he  has  acquired  ideas,  and 
made  all  nature  contribute  to  his  wants. 

There  are  very  different  degrees  of  development,  however,  in  Man. 

The  first  hordes,  compelled  to  live  by  fishing  and  hunting,  or  on  wild 
fruits,  and  being  obliged  to  devote  all  their  time  to  search  for  the  means  of 
subsistence,  and  not  being  able  to  multiply  greatly,  because  that  would  have 


BIMANA.  49 

destroyed  the  game,  advanced  but  slowly.  Their  arts  were  limited  to  the 
construction  of  huts  and  canoes,  to  covering  themselves  with  skins  and  the 
fabrication  of  arrows  and  nets.  They  observed  such  stars  only  as  directed 
them  in  their  journeys,  and  some  few  natural  objects  whose  properties 
were  of  use  to  them.  They  domesticated  the  Dog,  simply  because  he  had 
a  natural  inclination  for  their  own  kind  of  life.  When  they  had  succeeded 
In  taming  the  herbivorous  animals,  they  found  in  the  possession  of  numerous 
flocks  a  never  failing  source  of  subsistence,  and  also  some  leisure,  which 
they  employed  in  extending  the  sphere  of  their  acquirements.  Some  in- 
dustry was  tlien  employed  in  the  construction  of  dwellings  and  the  making 
of  clothes:  the  idea  of  property  was  admitted,  and  consequently  that  of 
barter,  as  well  as  wealth  and  difference  of  conditions,  those  fruitful  sources 
of  the  noblest  emulation  and  the  vilest  passions:  but  the  necessity  of  search- 
ing for  fresh  pastures,  and  of  obeying  the  changes  of  the  seasons,  still 
doomed  them  to  a  wandering  life,  and  limited  their  improvements  to  a  very 
narrow  sphere. 

The  multiplication  of  the  human  species,  and  its  improvement  in  the  arts 
and  sciences,  have  only  been  carried  to  a  high  degree  since  the  invention 
of  agriculture  and  the  division  of  the  soil  into  hereditary  possessions.  By 
means  of  agriculture,  the  manual  labour  of  a  portion  of  society  is  adequate 
to  the  maintenance  of  the  whole,  and  allows  the  remainder  time  for  less  ne- 
cessary occupations,  atthe  same  time  that  the  hope  of  acquiring,  by  industry, 
a  comfortable  existence  for  self  and  posterity,  has  given  a  new  springto  emu- 
lation. The  discovery  of  a  representative  of  property  or  a  circulating  me- 
dium, by  facilitating  exchanges  and  rendering  fortunes  more  independent 
and  susceptible  of  being  increased,  has  carried  this  emulation  to  its  highest 
degi'ee,  but  by  a  necessary  consequence  it  has  also  equally  increased  the 
vices  of  effeminacy  and  the  furies  of  ambition. 

The  natural  propensity  to  reduce  every  thing  to  general  principles,  and 
to  search  for  the  causes  of  every  phenomenon,  has  produced  reflecting  men, 
in  every  stage  of  society,  who  have  added  new  ideas  to  those  already 
obtained,  nearly  all  of  whom,  while  knowledge  was  confined  to  the  few, 
endeavoured  to  convert  their  intellectual  superiority  into  the  means  of  domi- 
nation, by  exaggerating  their  own  merit,  and  disguising  the  poverty  of  their 
knowledge  by  the  propagation  of  superstitious  ideas. 

An  evil  still  more  irremediable,  is  the  abuse  of  physical  power:  now  that 
man  only  can  injure  man,  he  is  continually  seeking  to  do  so,  and  is  the  only 
animal  upon  earth  that  is  forever  at  war  with  liis  own  species.  Savages 
fight  for  a  forest,  and  herdsmen  for  a  pasture,  and  as  often  as  they  can, 
break  in  upon  the  cultivators  of  the  earth  to  rob  them  of  the  fruits  of  their 
long  and  painful  labours.  Even  civihzed  nations,  far  from  being  contented 
with  their  blessings,  pour  out  each  other's  blood  for  the  prerogatives  of 
pride,  or  the  monopoly  of  trade.  Hence,  the  necessity  for  governments  to 
direct  the  national  wars,  and  to  repress  or  reduce  to  regular  forms  the 
quarrels  of  individuals. 

G 


50  MAMMALIA. 

The  social  condition  of  man  has  been  restrained,  or  advanced  by  circum- 
stances more  or  less  favourable. 

The  glacial  climates  of  the  north  of  both  continents,  afld  the  impenetrable 
forests  of  America  are  still  inhabited  by  the  savage  hunter  or  fisherman.  The 
immense  sandy  and  salt  plains  of  central  Asia  and  Africa  are  covered  with  a 
pastoral  people,  and  innumerable  herds.  These  half  civilized  hordes  as- 
semble at  the  call  of  every  enthusiastic  chief,  and  rush  like  a  torrent  on 
the  cultivated  countries  that  surround  them,  in  which  they  establish  them- 
selves, but  to  be  weakened  by  luxury,  and  in  their  turn  to  become  the  prey 
of  others.  This  is  the  true  cause  of  that  despotism  which  has  always  crush- 
ed and  destroyed  the  industry  of  Persia,  India,  and  China. 

Mild  climates,  soils  naturally  irrigated  and  rich  in  vegetables,  are  the 
cradles  of  agriculture  and  civilization,  and  when  so  situated  as  to  be  shel- 
tered from  the  incursions  of  barbarians,  every  species  of  talent  is  excited; 
such  were  (the  first  in  Europe)  Italy  and  Greece,  and  such  is,  at  present, 
nearly  all  that  happy  portion  of  the  earth. 

Varieties  of  the  Human  Species. 

Three  races  appear  veiy  distinct — the  Caucasian  or  ■white,  the  Mongolian 
or  yellow,  and  the  Ethiopian  or  negro. 

The  Caucasian,  to  which  we'belong,  is  distinguished  by  the  beauty  of  the 
oval  formed  by  his  head,  varying  in  complexion  and  the  colour  of  the  hah*. 
To  this  variety,  the  most  highly  civilized  nations,  and  those  which  have 
generally  held  all  others  in  subjection,  are  indebted  for  their  origin. 

The  Mongolian  is  known  by  his  high  cheek  bones,  flat  visage,  narrow 
and  oblique  eyes,  straight  black  hair,  scanty  beard  and  olive  complexion. 
Great  empires  have  been  established  by  this  race  in  China  and  Japan,  and 
their  conquests  been  extended  to  this  side  of  the  Great  Desert.  In  civiliza- 
tion, however,  it  has  always  remained  stationary. 

The  Negro  race  is  confined  to  the  south  of  mount  Atlas;  it  is  marked  by 
a  black  complexion;  crisped  or  woolly  hair,  compressed  cranium,  and  a  flat 
nose.  The  projection  of  the  lower  parts  of  the  face,  and  the  thick  lips, 
evidently  approximate  it  to  the  monkey  tribe;  the  hordes  of  which  it  con- 
sists have  always  remained  in  the  most  complete  state  of  utter  barbarism. 

The  race  from  which  we  are  descended  has  been  called  Caucasian,  be- 
cause tradition  and  the  filiation  of  nations  seem  to  refer  its  origin  to  that 
group  of  mountains  situated  between  the  Caspian  and  Black  seas,  whence, 
as  from  a  centre,  it  has  been  extended  like  the  radii  of  a  circle.  Various 
nations  in  the  vicinity  of  Caucasus,  the  Georgians  and  Circassians,  are  still 
considered  the  handsomest  on  earth.  The  principal  ramifications  of  this  race 
may  be  distinguished  by  the  analogies  of  language.  The  Armenian  or  Sy- 
rian branch,  stretching  to  the  south,  produced  the  Assyrians,  the  Chaldeans, 
the  hitherto  untameable  Arabs,  who,  after  Mahomet,  were  near  becoming 
masters  of  the  world;  the  Phenicians,  Jews  and  Abyssinians,  which  were  Ara- 
bian colonies;  and  most  probably  the  Egyptian.     It  is  from  this  briinch, 


BIMANA.  51 

always  inclined  to  mysticism,  that  have  sprung  the  most  widely  extended 
forms  of  religion — the  arts  and  literature  have  sometimes  flourished  among 
its  nations,  but  always  enveloped  in  a  strange  disguise  and  figurative  style. 

The  Indian,  German,  and  Pelasgic  branch  is  much  more  extended,  and 
was  much  earlier  divided,  notwithstanding  which,  the  most  numerous  affini- 
ties may  be  observed  between  its  four  principal  languages — the  Sanscrit, 
the  present  sacred  language  of  the  Hindoos,  and  the  parent  of  the  greater 
number  of  the  dialects  of  Hindostan;  the  ancient  language  of  the  Pelasgi, 
common  mother  of  the  Greek,  Latin,  many  tongues  that  are  extinct,  and 
of  all  those  of  the  south  of  Europe;  the  Gothic  or  Teutonic,  from  which  are 
derived  the  languages  of  the  north  and  north-west  of  Europe,  such  as  the 
German,  Dutch,  English,  Danish,  Swedish,  and  other  dialects;  and  finally, 
the  Sclavonian,  from  which  spring  those  of  the  north-east,  the  Russian, 
Polish,  Bohemian,  &c. 

It  is  by  this  great  and  venerable  branch  of  the  Caucasian  stock,  that 
philosophy,  the  arts,  and  the  sciences  have  been  carried  to  the  greatest 
perfection,  and  remained  in  the  keeping  of  the  nations  which  compose  it 
for  more  than  three  thousand  years. 

It  was  preceded  in  Europe  by  the  Celts,  who  came  from  the  north,  whose 
tribes,  once  very  numerous,  are  now  confined  to  its  most  eastern  extremity, 
and  by  the  Cantabrians,  who  passed  from  Africa  into  Spain,  now  confound- 
ed with  the  many  nations  whose  posterity  have  intermingled  in  that  pen- 
insula. 

The  ancient  Persians  originate  from  the  same  source  as  the  Indians,  and 
their  descendants  to  the  present  hour  bear  great  marks  of  resemblance  to 
the  people  of  Europe. 

The  predatory  tribes  of  the  Scythian  and  Tartar  branch,  extending  at 
first  to  the  north  and  north-east,  always  wandering  over  the  immense  plains 
of  those  countries,  returned  only  to  devastate  the  happier  abodes  of  their 
more  civilized  brethren.  The  Scythians,  who,  at  so  jemote  a  period, 
made  irruptions  into  upper  Asia;  the  Parthians,  who  there  destroyed  the 
Greek  and  Roman  domination;  the  Turks,  who  there  subverted  that  of  the 
Arabs,  and  subjugated  in  Europe  the  unfortunate  remnant  of  the  Grecian 
people,  all  swarmed  from  this  prolific  branch.  The  Finlanders  and  Hun- 
garians are  tribes  of  the  same  division,  which  have  strayed  among  the 
Sclavonic  and  Teutonic  nations.  Tiielr  original  country,  to  the  north  and 
north-east  of  the  Caspian  sea  still  contains  inhabitants  who  have  the  same 
origin,  and  speak  similar  languages,  but  mingled  with  other  petty  nations, 
variously  descended,  and  of  different  languages.  The  Tartars  remained 
unmixed  longer  than  the  others  in  the  country  included  between  the  mouth 
of  the  Danube  to  beyond  the  Irtlsch,  from  which  they  so  long  menaced 
Russia,  and  where  they  have  finally  been  subjugated  by  her.  The  Mon- 
goles,  however,  have  mingled  their  blood  with  that  of  those  they  conquered, 
many  traces  of  which  may  still  be  found  among  the  inhabitants  of  lesser 
Tartary. 

It  is  to  the  east  of  this  Tartar  branch  of  the  Caucasian  race  that  the  Mon- 


52  MAMMALIA. 

golian  race  begins,  whence  it  extends  to  the  eastern  ocean.  Its  branches, 
the  Calmucs,  &c.  still  wandering-  shepherds,  are  constantly  traversing  the 
desert.  Thrice  did  their  ancestors  under  Attila,  Genghis,  and  Tamerlane, 
spread  far  the  terror  of  their  name.  The  Chinese  are  the  earliest  and 
most  civilized  branch  not  only  of  this  race,  to  which  they  belong,  but  of  all 
the  nations  upon  earth.  A  third  branch,  the  Mantchures,  recently  con- 
quered, and  still  govern  China.  The  Japanese,  Coreans,  and  nearly  all 
the  hordes  which  extend  to  the  north-east  of  Siberia,  subject  to  Russia, 
are  also  to  be  considered,  in  a  great  measure,  as  originating  from  this  race; 
and  such  also  is  esteemed  the  fact,  with  regard  to  the  original  inhabitants 
of  various  islands  of  that  Archipelago.  With  the  exception  of  a  few  Chi- 
nese literati;  the  different  nations  of  the  Mongoles  are  universally  addicted 
to  Buddism,  or  the  religion  of  Fo. 

The  origin  of  this  great  race  appears  to  have  been  in  the  mounfadns  of  At- 
lai,  but  it  is  impossible  to  trace  the  filiation  of  its  different  branches  with 
the  same  certainty  as  we  have  done  those  of  the  Caucasian.  The  history 
of  these  wandering  nations  is  as  fugitive  as  their  establishments,  and  that  of 
the  Chinese,  confined  exclusively  to  their  own  empire,  gives  us  nothing 
satisfactory  with  respect  to  their  neighbours.  The  affinities  of  their  lan- 
guages are  also  too  little  known  to  direct  us  in  this  labyrinth. 

The  languages  of  the  north  of  the  peninsula  beyond  the  Ganges,  as  well 
as  that  of  Thibet,  are  somewhat  allied  to  the  Chinese,  at  least  in  their  mo- 
nosyllabic structure,  and  the  people  who  speak  them  have  features  some- 
what resembling  other  Mongoles.  The  south  of  this  peninsula,  however,  is 
inhabited  by  Malays,  whose  forms  approximate  them  much  nearer  to  the  In- 
dians, whose  race  and  language  are  extended  over  all  the  coasts  of  the  islands 
of  the  Indian  Archipelago.  The  innumerable  little  islands  of  the  southern 
ocean  are  also  peopled  by  a  handsome  race,  nearly  allied  to  the  Indians, 
whose  language  is  very  similar  to  the  Malay;  in  the  interior  of  the  lai'gest 
of  these  islands,  particularly  in  the  wilder  portions  of  it,  is  another  race 
of  men,  with  black  complexions,  crisped  hair,  and  negro  faces,  called  Al- 
fourous.  On  the  coast  of  New  Guinea,  and  in  the  neighbouring  islands, 
we  find  other  negroes,  nearly  similar  to  those  of  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa, 
named  Papuas;  to  the  latter,  are  generally  referred  the  people  of  Van-Die- 
men'sland,  and  those  of  New  Holland  to  the  Alfoui-ous. 

These  Malays,  and  these  Papuas  are  not  easily  referable  to  either  of  the 
three  great  races  of  which  we  have  been  speaking,  but  can  the^brmer  be 
clearly  distinguished  from  their  neighbours,  the  Caucasian  Hindoos  and  the 
Mongolian  Chinese?  As  for  us,  we  confess  we  cannot  discover  any  suffi- 
cient characteristics  in  them  for  that  purpose.  Are  the  Papuas  Negroes, 
which  may  formerly  have  strayed  into  the  Indian  ocean  ?  "We  posess  neither 
figures  nor  descriptions  sufficiently  precise  to  enable  us  to  answer  this 
question. 

The  northern  inhabitants  of  both  continents,  the  Samoiedes,  the  Lap- 
landers, and  the  Esquimaux,  spring,  according  to  some,  from  tlie  Mongolian 


BIMANA.  53 

race,  while  others  assert  that  they  are  mere  degenerate  offsets  from  the 
Scythian  and  Tartar  branch  of  the  Caucasian  stock. 

We  have  not  yet  been  able  to  refer  the  Americans  to  any  of  the  races  of 
the  eastern  continent;  still,  they  have  no  precise  nor  constant  character 
which  can  entitle  them  to  be  considered  as  a  particular  one.  Their  copper 
coloured  complexion  is  not  sufficient;  their  generally  black  hair  and  scanty 
beard  would  induce  us  to  refer  them  to  the  Mongoles,  if  their  defined  fea- 
tures, projecting  nose,  large  and  open  eye,  did  not  oppose  such  a  theory, 
and  correspond  with  the  features  of  the  European.  Their  languages  are  as 
numberless  as  their  tribes,  and  no  demonstrative  analogy  has  as  yet  been 
obtained,  either  with  each  other,  or  with  those  of  the  old  world. 


ORDER  II. 

QUADRUMANA(l). 

Independently  of  the  anatomical  details  which  distinguish  it  from 
Man,  and  which  have  been  given,  this  family  differs  from  our  spe- 
cies in  a  very  remarkable  way.  All  the  animals  belonging  to  it 
have  the  toes  of  the  hind  feet  free  and  opposable  to  the  others,  and 
the  toes  are  all  as  long  and  flexible  as  fingers.  In  consequence  of 
this,  the  whole  species  climb  trees  with  the  greatest  facility,  while  it 
is  only  with  pain  and  difficulty  they  can  stand  and  walk  upright;  their 
foot  then  resting  on  its  outer  edge  only,  and  their  narrow  pelvis 
being  unfavourable  to  an  equilibrium.  They  all  have  intestines 
very  similar  to  those  of  man;  the  eyes  directed  forwards.  The  brain 
has  three  lobes  on  each  side,  the  posterior  of  which  covers  the  cere- 
bellum, and  the  temporal  fossae  are  separated  from  the  orbits  by  a 
bony  partition.  In  every  thing  else,  however,  they  gradually  lessen 
in  resemblance  to  him,  by  assuming  a  muzzle  more  and  more  elon- 
gated, a  tail  and  a  gait  more  like  that  of  quadrupeds.  Notwithstand- 
ing this,  the  freedom  of  their  arms  and  the  complication  of  their 
hands  allow  them  all  to  perform  many  of  the  actions  of  man  as  well 
as  to  imitate  his  gestures. 

They  have  long  been  divided  into  two  genera,  the  Monkeys  and 
the  Lemurs^  which,  by  the  multiplication  of  secondary  forms,  have 
now  become  two  small  families,  between  which  we  must  place  a 

(1)  Animals  with  four  hands. 


54  MAMMALIA. 

third  genus  that  of  the  Ouistitis^  as  it  is  not  conveniently  referable  to 
the  one  or  the  other. 

SiMiA,  Lin. 

The  Monkeys  are  all  quadrumana,  which  have  four  straight  incisors  in 
each  jaw,  and  flat  nails  on  all  the  extremities;  two  characters  which  ap- 
proximate them  them  more  nearly  to  Man,  than  the  subsequent  genera; 
their  molars  have  also  blunt  tubercles  like  ours,  and  their  food  consists 
chiefly  of  fruits.  Their  canine  teeth,  however,  being-  longer  than  the  rest, 
supply  them  with  weapons  we  do  not  possess,  and  which  require  a  hollow 
in  the  opposite  jaw,  to  receive  them  when  the  mouth  is  closed. 

They  may  be  divided,  from  the  number  of  their  molar  teeth,  into  two 
principal  subgenera,  which  are  again  subdivided  into  numerous  groups. 
The 

MoNKETS,  properly  so  called. 
Or  those  of  the  eastern  continent,  have  the  same  number  of  grinders  as 
Man,  but  otherwise  differing  from  each  other  by  characters,  which  have 
formed  the  grounds  of  the  following  subdivisions.     The 

SiMiA,  Erxl. — ^PiTHEctrs,  Geoffr. 

The  Ourangs(l),  are  the  only  monkeys  of  the  ancient  continent  which 
have  no  callus  on  the  seat.  Their  nose  is  not  prominent,  they  have  no 
cheek-pouches,  nor  a  vestige  of  a  tail.  Some  of  them  have  arms  long 
enough  to  reach  the  ground  when  standing — their  legs,  on  the  contrary, 
are  very  short. 

S.  satyrus,  L.  (The  Ourang-Outang.)  Of  all  animals,  this  Ourang  is 
considered  as  approaching  most  nearly  to  Man  in  the  form  of  hishead,  height 
of  forehead,  and  vohime  of  brain;  but  the  exaggerated  descriptions  of  some 
authors  respecting  this  resemblance,  are  partly  to  be  attributed  to  the  fact 
of  their  being  drawn  from  young  individuals  only;  and  there  is  every  reason 
to  believe,  that  with  age,  their  muzzle  becomes  much  more  prominent. 
The  body  is  covered  witli  coarse  red  hair,  the  face  bluish,  and  the  hinder 
thumbs  very  short  compared  with  the  toes.  His  lips  are  susceptible  of  a 
singular  elongation,  and  possess  great  mobility.  His  history  has  been 
much  disfigured  by  mingling  it  with  that  of  the  other  great  monkeys,  that 
of  the  Chimpanse  in  particular.  After  a  strict  and  critical  examination,  I 
have  ascertained  that  the  Ourang-Outang  inhabits  the  most  eastern  coun- 
tries only,  such  as  Malabar,  Cochin  China,  and  particularly  the  great  island 
of  Borneo,  whence  he  has  been  occasionally  brought  to  Europe  by  the  way 
of  Java.  When  young,  and  such  as  he  appears  to  us  in  his  captivity,  he  is 
a  mild  and  gentle  animal,  easily  rendered  tame  and  affectionate,  which  is 


(1)  Oran^  is  a  Malay  word  signifying  reasonable  being,  which  is  applied 
to  man,  the  ourang- ou  tang,  and  the  elephant.  Outang  means  lytW,  or  of  the 
woods;  hence.  Wild  Man  of  the  Woods. 


QUA DRUM AN A.  55 

enabled  by  his  conformation  to  imitate  many  of  our  actions,  but  whose 
intelligence  does  not  appear  to  be  as  great  as  is  reported,  not  much  sur- 
passing even  that  of  the  Dog. 

There  is  a  monkey  in  Borneo,  hitherto  known  only  by  his  skeleton,  called 
the  Pongo,  which  so  closely  resembles  the  Ourang-Outang  in  the  propor- 
tions of  all  his  parts,  that  we  are  tempted  to  consider  him  an  adult — if  not 
of  the  species  of  the  Ourang-Outang,  at  least  of  one  very  nearly  allied  to  it. 
He  is  the  largest  monkey  known,  and  in  size  is  nearly  equal  to  Man. 

The  arms  of  the  remaining  Ourangs  reach  only  to  the  knee.  They  have 
no  forehead,  and  the  cranium  retreats  from  the  crest  of  the  eye-brow.  The 
name  of  CiiiMPAifSES  might  be  exclusively  applied  to  them. 

S.  Troglodytes,  L.  (The  Chimpansd)  is  covered  with  black  or  brown  hair. 
Could  any  reliance  be  placed  on  the  accounts  of  travellers,  this  animal 
must  be  equal  or  superior  to  man  in  stature,  but  no  part  of  it  hitherto  seen 
in  Europe  indicates  this  extraordinary  size.  It  inhabits  Guinea  and  Congo, 
lives  in  troops,  constructs  huts  of  leaves  and  sticks,  arms  itself  with  clubs 
and  stones,  and  thus  repulses  men  and  elephants.  Naturalists  have  gene- 
rally confounded  it  with  the  Ourang-Outang.  When  domesticated  he  soon 
learns  to  walk,  sit,  and  eat  like  a  man.  We  now  separate  the  Gibbons 
from  the  Ourangs. 

HiLOBATES,  lllig. 

The  Gibbons  have  the  long  arms  of  the  true  Ourangs,  and  the  low  fore- 
head of  the  Chimpans6,  along  with  the  callous  seat  of  the  Guenons,  differ- 
ing however  from  the  latter  in  having  no  tail  or  cheek-pouch.  They  all 
inhabit  the  most  remote  pai-ts  of  India. 

S.  lar.  L.  (The  Black  Gibbon)  is  covered  with  coarse  black  hairs,  and 
has  a  whitish  circle  round  his  face.     There  are  several  other  species. 

CERcopiTHEctrs,  Erxl. 

The  long-tailed  monkeys  have  a  moderately  prominent  muzzle  (of  60°); 
cheek-pouches;  tail;  callosities  on  the  seat;  the  last  of  the  inferior  molars 
with  four  tubercles  like  the  rest.  Numerous  species,  of  every  variety  of 
size  and  colour,  abound  in  Africa,  live  in  troops,  and  do  much  damage  to 
the  gardens  and  fields  under  cultivation.     They  are  easily  tamed. 

Simia  rubra,  Gm.  (The  Patras.)  Red  fawn  colour  above,  whitish 
below;  a  black  band  over  the  eyes,  sometimes  surmounted  with  white — 
from  Senegal.     The 

Semsopithectts,  Fred.  Cuv. 
Differs  from  the  Long-tailed  Monkeys,  by  having  an  additional  small 
tubercle  on  the  last  of  the  inferior  molares.  These  animals  inhabit  eastern 
countries,  and  their  long  limbs  and  very  long  tail  give  them  a  very  peculiar 
appearance.  Their  muzzle  projects  veiy  little  more  than  that  of  the  Gib- 
bons, and  like  them,  they  have  callosities  on  the  seat.     They  appear, 


56  MAMMALIA. 

likewise,  to  have  no  cheek-pouches;  their  larynx  is  furnished  with  a  sac. 
The  one  longest  known  is  the 

Sim.  nemmus,  L.  Remarkable  for  its  lively  and  varied  colouring;  body 
and  arms  grey;  hands,  thighs  and  feet  black;  legs  of  a  lively  red;  the  tail 
and  a  large  triangular  spot  upon  the  loins,  white;  face  orange;  he  has  a 
black  and  red  collar,  and  tufts  of  yellow  hairs  on  the  sides  of  the  head; 
inhabits  Cochin  China. 

Macacus,  or  MACAauEs. 

All  the  animals  of  this  denomination  have  a  fifth  tubercle  on  their  last 
molars,  and  callosities  and  cheek  pouches  like  a  Guenon.  The  limbs  are 
shorter  and  thicker  than  in  a  Semnopithecus;  the  muzzle  more  projecting, 
and  the  superciliary  ridge  more  inflated  than  in  either  the  one  or  the  other. 
Though  docile  when  young,  they  become  unmanageable  when  old.  They 
all  have  a  sac  which  communicates  with  the  larynx  under  the  thyroid  car- 
tilage, and  which,  when  they  cry  out,  becomes  filled  with  air. 

Sim.  silenus  and  leonina,  L.  (The  Maned  Macaque.)  Black;  ash-col- 
oured mane  and  whitish  beard  which  surround  the  head.     From  Ceylon. 

Some  of  the  Macaques  are  distinguished  by  a  short  tail. 

M.  rhesus.  (The  Pig-tailed  Baboon.)  Greyish;  a  fawn-coloured  tinge 
on  the  head  and  crupper,  sometimes  on  the  back;  face  flesh-colour;  tail 
reaching  below  the  hamstrings.    From  Bengal. 

iNtrus,  Cuv. 
The  Inui  are  mere  Macaques,  which  have  a  small  tubercle  in  lieu  of  a 
tail. 

Ctnockphaltts,  C.(1) 

The  Dog  headed-Monkeys,  together  with  the  teeth,  cheek-pouches  and 
callosities  of  the  Inuus,  Cuv. ,  have  an  elongated  muzzle  truncated  at  the 
end,  in  which  the  nostrils  are  piei'ced,  giving  it  a  greater  resemblance  to 
that  of  a  dog  than  of  any  other  monkey;  their  tail  varies  in  length.  They 
are  generally  large,  ferocious  and  dangerous  animals,  found  mostly  in 
Africa. 

C.  papio,  Desm.  (The  Guinea  Baboon.)  Yellow,  verging  more  or  less 
on  a  brown;  tufts  of  the  cheeks  fawn-coloured;  face  black;  tail  long.  They 
are  found  of  various  sizes,  owing  probably  to  the  difference  of  age.  When 
full  grown,  frightful  from  their  ferocity  and  brutality.    From  Guinea.    The 

MAiraKiii.'s, 
Of  all  the  Monkeys,  have  the  longest  muzzle  (30°);  their  tail  is  very  short; 
they  are  brutal  and  ferocious;  nose  as  in  the  preceding. 

Sim.  maimon  and  mormon,  Lin.     (The  Mandrill.)     Greyish  brown,  in- 


( 1 )  Cynocephalus,  dog's  head. 


QUADRUMANA.  57 

clining-  to  olive  above;  cheeks  blue  and  furrowed.  The  nose  in  the  adult 
male  becomes  red,  particularly  at  the  end,  where  it  is  scarlet,  which  has 
been  the  cause  of  its  being  deemed,  erroneously,  a  distinct  species.  It  is 
difficult  to  imagine  a  more  hideous  or  extraordinary  animal.  He  nearly  at- 
tains the  size  of  a  man,  and  is  a  terror  to  the  negroes  of  Guinea.  Many 
details  of  his  history  have  been  mixed  up  with  that  of  the  Chimpans^,  and 
consequently  with  tliat  of  the  Ourang'-Outang. 

The  Monkeys  of  America 

Have  four  grinders  more  than  the  others — thirty-six  in  all;  the  tail  long; 
no  cheek-pouches;  seat  hairy;  no  callosities;  nostrils  opening  on  the 
sides  of  the  nose,  and  not  underneath.  All  the  great  Quadrumana  of 
America  belong  to  this  division. 

The  tails  of  some  of  them  are  prehensile— that  is,  their  extremity  can 
twist  round  a  body  with  sufficient  force  to  seize  it  as  with  a  hand.  They 
are  more  particularly  designated  by  the  name  of  Sapajous. 

At  their  head  may  be  placed  the  Alouattes  (Micetes,  Illig.),  which  are 
distinguished  by  a  pyramidal  head,  the  upper  jaw  of  which  descends  much 
below  the  cranium,  as  the  branches  of  the  lower  one  ascend  very  high  for 
the  purpose  of  lodging  a  bony  drum,  formed  by  a  vesicular  inflation  of  the 
hyoid  bone,  which  communicates  with  the  larynx,  and  gives  to  their  voice 
sistonishing  power,  and  a  most  frightful  sound.  Hence  their  name  of 
Howling  Monkeys.     The  prehensile  portion  of  the  tail  is  naked  beneath. 

There  are  several  species,  whose  distinguishing  characters  are  not  yet 
well  ascertained,  for  the  colour  of  the  fur  on  which  they  are  established 
varies  with  the  age  and  sex. 

Simia  seniculus,  Buff.  (Red  Howling  Monkey.)  It  is  often  sent  to  us 
from  the  forests  of  Guiana,  where  it  lives  in  troops;  size  that  of  a  large  fox; 
colour,  a  reddish  chesnut,  rather  deeper  at  the  head  and  tail. 

The  Common  Sapajous  have  the  head  flat,  and  the  projection  of  the 
muzzle  very  moderate — facial  angle  60°. 

In  some  of  them,  the  anterior  thumbs  are  either  totally,  or  nearly  so,  hid- 
den under  the  skin,  and  the  prehensile  part  of  the  tail  naked  beneath.  M. 
Geoff,  has  formed  them  into  a  genus  by  the  name  of  Ateees. 

Lagothhix,  Geoff. — Gastrimargus,  Spix. 

Head  round,  a  thumb  like  the  Alouattes;  tail  partly  naked.  Such  are  the 
L.  Humboldii,  Geoff.,  the  Capparo,  and  the  Grison  or  the  Silver-haired 
Monkey;  Monkeys  from  the  interior  of  South  America,  said  to  be  remark- 
able gluttons. 

The  other  Sapajous  have  a  round  head,  distinct  thumbs,  and  the  tail  hairy, 
though  prehensile.  The  species  are  more  numerous  than  those  of  the 
Alouatte,  and  are  characterised  with  nearly  as  much  difficulty. 

Some  of  them  have  the  hairs  on  the  forehead  of  a  uniform  length,  such 
as  the 

Sim.  appella,  L.  (The  Sajou);  and  the  aS"-  capucina,  L.  (The  Capuchin.) 
H 


58  MAMMALIA. 

Both  of  them  of  different  browns;  in  the  first,  the  circumference  of  the  face 
is  blackish;  in  the  second  it  is  whitish;  but  the  shade  of  colour  in  all  the 
rest  of  their  bodies  varies  between  a  brownish  black  and  a  fawn-colour, 
sometimes  even  a  white.  The  shoulders  and  breast  are  however  generally 
lighter  and  the  calotte  and  hands  darker. 

Others,  again,  have  the  hairs  of  the  forehead  so  disposed  as  to  form  a 
kind  of  aigrette,  such  as  the 

Sim.  fatuellus,  Gm.  (The  Horned  Sajou.)  This  animal  has  a  tuft  of 
black  hairs  on  each  side  of  the  forehead. 

The  disposition  of  these  Monkeys  is  mild  and  gentle,  their  motions^quick 
and  light,  and  they  are  easily  tamed.  Their  name  of  Weeping  Monkeys  is 
derived  from  their  soft  plaintive  voice. 

In  the  Saimiki  the  tail  is  depressed,  and  almost  ceases  to  be  prehensile; 
the  head  is  very  much  flattened;  in  the  interorbitar  partition  of  the  skeleton 
there  is  a  membranous  space.     There  is  only  one  known;  the 

Simla  sciurea,  Buff.  (The  Siamiri.)  Size  of  a  Squirrel;  of  a  yellowish 
grey;  fore-arms,  legs,  and  the  four  extremities  of  a  yellowish  fawn-colour; 
end  of  the  nose  black. 

Those  of  the  American  monkeys,  whose  tails  are  not  at  all  prehensile,  are 
called  Sakis.  Several  of  them  have  that  appendage  long  and  tufted,  whence 
they  have  been  also  termed  Fox-tailed  Monkeys:  their  teeth  project  for- 
wards more  than  those  of  the  others.  They  are  the  Pithecia  of  Desmarets 
and  lUiger. 

Simla  pitheclaflj.  (TheYarke.)  Blackish;  circumference  of  the  face 
whitish. 

Spix  distinguishes  those  species  whose  tails,  although  tufted,  are  shorter 
than  the  body,  by  the  name  of  BBACHitriitrs.  His  £r.  Ouaraki  has  a  fawn- 
coloured  body;  head,  neck,  arms  and  feet  black. 

In  some,  also,  the  Callithrix,  Geoff,  or  Sagouins,  Fr.  Cuv.  the  tail  is 
slender,  and  the  teeth  do  not  project.  The  Saimiri  were  associated  with 
them  for  a  long  time,  but  the  head  of  the  Sagouins  is  higher,  and  their 
canine  teeth  much  shorter.     Such  is  the 

Call.  perso7iata,  Geoff.  (The  Masked  Monkey.)  A  yellowish  grey;  head 
and  hands  black.    The 

NocTHOHus,  Fred.  Cuv. 
Only  differs  from  the  Sagouins  in  its  great  nocturnal  eyes,  and  in  the 
ears,  which  are  partly  hidden  under  the  hair.     One  species  only  is  known, 
Nocth.  irivlrgata,  Fred.  Cuv.     (The  Douroucouli.)     Ash-coloured  above, 
\^   yellowish  beneath;  a  black  vertical  line  on  the  middle  of  the  forehead,  and 
one  on  each  temple.     It  is  a  nocturnal  animal  of  South  America. 
They  are  all  from  Guiana  or  Brazil. 

OUISTITIS. 

A  small  genus,  similar  to  the  Sakis,  and  for  a  long  time  confounded  with 
them  in  the  great  genus  of  monkeys.     In  fact,  like  the  generality  of  the 


QUADRUMANA.  59 

American  monkeys,  they  have  the  head  round;  visage  flat;  nostrils  lateral; 
no  cheek-pouches,  and,  like  the  Sakis  in  particular,  the  tail  not  prehensile. 
They  have  only,  however,  twenty  grinders,  like  the  monkeys  of  the  east- 
ern continent;  all  their  nails  are  compressed  and  pointed,  those  of  the  hind 
thumbs  excepted,  while  their  anterior  ones  are  so  slightly  separated  from 
the  fingers,  that  it  is  with  hesitation  we  assign  to  them  the  name  of  quad- 
rumana.  They  are  pretty  little  creatures,  of  agreeable  forms,  and  easily 
tamed. 

M.  GeofFroy  distinguishes  the  Ouistltis,  properly  so  called,  which  he 
names  Jaccuus  and  whose  peculiar  characters  are  pointed  inferior  incisors, 
arranged  on  a  curved  line,  equal  to  the  canines.  Their  tail  is  annulated 
and  well  covered  with  hairs;  the  ears  generally  ornamented  with  a  tuft. 

Sim.  jacchus,  Lin.;  in  Paraguay  the  Titi.  (The  Common  Ouistiti.)  Tail 
tolerably  well  tufted,  coloured  in  rings  of  brown  and  white;  body  greyish- 
brown;  two  large  tufts  of  white  hairs  before  the  ears.  From  nearly  every 
part  of  South  America. 

Lemur,  Lin. 
The  Lemurs,  according  to  Linnaeus,  comprehend  all  the  Quadrumana  which 
have  in  either  jaw  incisors  differing  in  number  from  four,  or  at  least  diffe- 
rently directed  from  those  of  the  Monkeys.  This  negative  character 
could  not  fail  to  embrace  very  different  beings,  while  it  did  not  even 
unite  those  which  should  be  combined.  Geoffroy  has  established  several 
divisions  in  this  genus  which  are  much  better  characterized.  The  four 
thumbs  of  these  animals  are  well  developed  and  opposable,  and  the  first 
hind  finger  is  armed  with  a  pointed,  raised  nail;  all  the  other  nails  are  flat. 
Their  fur  is  woolly;  and  their  teeth  begin  to  exhibit  sharp  tubercles  catch- 
ing in  each  other  as  in  the  Insectivora. 

Lemur. — Maris,  properly  so  called. 
Six  incisors  in  the  lower  jaw  compressed  and  slanting  forwards,  four  in 
the  upper  that  are  straight,  the  intermediate  ones  being  separated  from 
each  other;  trenchant  canines;  six  molares  on  each  side  above,  six  below; 
ears  small.  They  are  very  active  animals,  which,  from  their  pointed  heads, 
have  been  called  Fox-nosed  Monkeys.  Their  food  is  fruit.  Their  species  are 
very  numerous,  and  are  only  met  with  in  the  island  of  Madagascar,  where 
they  appear  to  replace  the  Monkeys,  none  of  which  it  is  said  are  tobefound 
there.     Nearly  all  the  difference  that  exists  between  them  is  in  the  colour. 

IkDBIS. — LlCHANOTUS,  lUig. 

Teeth  like  the  preceding,  except  that  there  are  only  four  below. 

One  species  only  is  known;  it  has  no  tail;  is  three  feet  high;  black;  face 
grey;  the  Lemur  Indri  of  Sonnerat,  Voy.  I,  pi.  86.  The  inhabitants  of 
Madagascar  tame  and  train  it  like  a  dog  for  the  chase. 


60  MAMMALIA. 


LoRis. — Stekops,  Illig. 

The  Lazy  Monkeys,  as  they  are  called,  have  teeth  like  the  Makis,  the 
grinders  excepted,  the  points  of  which  are  more  acute;  the  short  muzzle 
of  a  mastiff;  body  slender;  no  tail;  large  eyes;  tongue  rough. 

They  feed  on  insects,  occasionally  on  small  birds  and  quadrupeds,  their 
gait  is  excessively  slow,  and  mode  of  life  nocturnal.  Two  species  only  are 
known,  both  of  them  from  the  East  Indies:  one  is  the 

Lem.  tardigradus,  L.  (The  Slow  Loris,  or  Sloth  of  Bengal.)  Fawn- 
coloured  grey,  a  brown  streak  along  the  back;  two  of  the  upper  incisors 
sometimes  wanting.     The  second  species  is  called  the  Slender  Loris. 

Galago,  Geoff. — OTOi.iiirctJS,  Illig. 

The  teeth  and  insectivorous  regimen  of  the  preceding;  elongated  tarsi 
which  produce  a  disproportion  in  the  dimensions  of  their  hind  feet;  a  long 
tufted  tail;  large  membranous  ears  and  great  eyes,  which  announce  noc- 
turnal habits. 

There  are  several  species  known,  all  from  Africa.  It  appears  also  that 
we  should  refer  to  them  an  animal  of  that  country  {Lemur  potto,  Gm.), 
whose  gait  is  said  to  be  as  slow  as  that  of  the  Loris  and  Sloths. 

Tarsitts. 
Elongated  tarsi,  and  all  the  other  details  of  form  belonging  to  the  pre- 
ceding division;  but  the  space  between  the  molars  and  incisors  is  occupied 
by  several  shorter  teeth;  the  middle  superior  incisors  are  lengthened  and 
resemble  canini.  The  muzzle  is  very  short,  and  the  eyes  still  larger  than 
those  of  the  Galago.  They  are  nocturnal  animals,  and  feed  on  insects. 
From  the  Moluccas.    Lemur  spectrum.  Pall. 


ORDER  III. 
CARNARIA(l). 

This  order  consists  of  a  considerable  and  varied  assemblage  of 
unguiculated  quadrupeds,  possessing  like  Man  and  the  Quadru- 
mana  the  three  sorts  of  teeth,  but  which  have  no  opposable  thumb 
to  their  fore-feet.  Their  food  is  animal,  and  the  more  exclusively 
so,  as  their  grinders  are  the  more  trenchant.  Such  as  have  them 
wholly  or  partly  tuberculous,  take  more  or  less  vegetable  aliment, 


(1)  Flesh  eating  animals. 


CARNARIA.  61 

and  those  in  which  they  are  bristled  with  points  live  principally  on 
Insects.  The  articulation  of  their  lower  jaw,  being  transversely 
directed  and  hinge-like,  allows  of  no  lateral  motion;  it  can  only 
open  and  shut. 

Although  the  convolutions  of  the  brain  are  still  tolerably  well 
marked,  it  has  no  third  lobe,  nor  does  it  cover  the  cerebellum  any 
more  than  in  the  following  families;  the  orbit  is  not  separated  from 
the  temporal  fossa  in  the  skeleton;  the  cranium  is  narrowed  and  the 
zygomatic  arches  widened  and  raised,  in  order  to  give  more  strength 
and  volume  to  the  muscles  of  their  jaws.  Their  predominant  sense 
is  that  of  smell,  and  their  pituitary  membrane  is  generally  spread 
over  numerous  bony  laminae.  The  fore-arm  has  still  the  power  of 
revolving  in  nearly  all  of  them,  although  with  less  facility  than  in 
the  Quadrumana,  and  they  never  have  the  thumb  of  the  anterior 
extremities  opposed  to  the  other  toes.  On  account  of  the  substan- 
tial nature  of  the  aliment,  and  to  avoid  the  putrefaction  it  would 
undergo  by  remaining  too  long  in  an  elongated  canal,  their  intes- 
tines are  less  voluminous. 

There  is  a  great  variety  in  their  forms  and  in  the  details  of  their 
organization,  which  produces  analogous  differences  in  their  habits, 
and  to  such  an  extent  as  makes  it  impossible  to  arrange  their  ge- 
nera on  one  line,  and  compels  us  to  form  them  into  several  families, 
which  are  variously  connected  by  multiplied  relations. 


FAMILY  I. 

CHEIROPTERA. 

This  family  still  retains  some  affinity  with  the  Quadrumana. 
Their  distinguishing  character  consists  in  a  fold  of  the  skin,  which, 
commencing  at  the  sides  of  the  neck,  extends  between  their  four 
feet  and  toes,  supports  them  in  the  air,  and  even  enables  such  of 
them  to  fly  as  have  their  hands  sufficiently  developed  for  that  pur- 
pose. This  disposition  required  strong  clavicles  and  large  scapula; 
to  give  the  necessary  solidity  to  the  shoulder,  but  it  was  incompati- 
ble with  the  rotation  of  the  fore-arm,  which  would  have  diminished 
the  force  of  the  stroke  requisite  for  flight.  They  have  all  four  great 
canini,  but  the  number  of  their  incisors  varies.  They  have  long 
been  divided  into  two  genera,  founded  upon  the  extent  of  their  or- 


62  MAMMALIA. 

gans  of  flight.     The  first  of  these,  however,  requires  several  subdi- 


Vespertilio,  Lin. 
The  arms,  fore-arms  and  fingers  of  the  Bats  are  excessively  lengthened, 
forming,  with  tlie  membrane  that  occupies  their  intervals,  true  wings,  pos- 
sessing even  a  greater  extent  of  surface  than  those  of  Birds — they  conse- 
quently fly  very  high,  and  with  great  rapidity.  The  thickness  of  their 
pectoral  muscles  is  propc»tioned  to  the  motions  they  have  to  execute,  and 
there  is  a  ridge  in  the  middle  of  the  sternum  like  that  of  Birds,  to  which 
they  are  attached.  The  thumb  is  short  and  armed  with  a  claw,  by  which 
they  are  enabled  to  creep  and  to  suspend  themselves.  Their  hind  feet  are 
weak  and  are  divided  into  five  toes,  almost  always  of  equal  length,  armed 
with  trenchant  and  pointed  nails.  Their  eyes  are  excessively  small,  but 
their  ears  are  frequently  very  large,  and  together  with  the  wings  form  a 
vast  membranous  surface,  which  is  almost  naked,  and  so  extremely  sensi- 
ble that  it  is  probable  they  guide  themselves  through  all  the  sinuosities  of 
their  labyrinths,  even  after  their  eyes  have  been  plucked  out,  solely  by  the 
diversity  of  the  impressions  of  the  air.  They  are  nocturnal,  and  in  our 
climate  pass  the  winter  in  a  state  of  stupor.  During  the  day  they  suspend 
themselves  in  obscure  places.  They  generally  produce  two  young  ones 
at  a  birth,  which  cling  to  their  mammae,  and  whose  size  is  considerable  in 
proportion  to  that  of  the  mother.  This  genus  Is  very  numerous,  and  offers 
many  subdivisions.     We  must  begin  by  separating  from  it  the 

Pteeopus,  Bris. 

Trenchant  incisors  in  each  jaw,  and  grinders  with  flat  crowns;  the  food, 
consequently,  consists  chiefly  of  fruit,  of  which  it  destroys  considerable 
quantities;  it  also  successfully  pursues  birds  and  small  quadrupeds.  It  is 
the  largest  Bat  known,  and  the  flesh  is  eaten.     It  inhabits  the  East  Indies. 

They  have  never  been  found  out  of  the  south  of  Asia  or  the  Indian  Ar- 
chipelago. 

a.  Without  tails,  and  four  incisors  in  each  jaw. 
P.  edulis,  Geoff.     (The  Black  Roussette.)    Blackish  brown,  deepest  be- 
neath, wings  nearly  four  feet  from  tip  to  tip.     From  the  Moluccas  and  the 
straits  of  Sunda,  where  they  are  found  in  great  numbers  during  the  day 
suspended  to  the  trees. 

b.  With  a  small  tail  and  four  incisors  in  each  Jaw. 

M.  Geoffroy  was  the  first  who  described  the  species  of  this  subdivision. 
One  of  them  grey  and  woolly,  Fter.  aegypticus,  is  found  In  the  caves  of 
Egypt. 

The  Pteropi  being  taken  away,  we  have  the  true  Bats  left,  which  are 
all  insectivorous,  and  have  three  grinders  on  each  side  in  each  jaw,  bristled 


CARNARIA.  03 

with  conical  points,  they  are  preceded  by  a  variable  number  of  false 
molars.  Their  index  never  has  a  nail,  and,  one  subgenus  excepted,  the 
membrane  is  always  extended  between  the  two  legs. 

They  should  be  divided  into  two  principal  tribes.  The  first  has  three 
ossified  phalanges  in  the  middle  finger  of  the  wing,  but  the  remainder,  in- 
cluding the  index  itself,  consists  of  but  two. 

The  tribe  of  true  bats  is  now  divided  into  numerous  subgenera  such  as 
Jtfolossus,  Nodilio,  Vampirus,  &c.  &c.,  distinguished  by  the  absence  or 
presence  of  a  tail,  tlie  fact  of  its  being  free  above  the  membrane  or  in- 
volved in  it,  the  presence  of  a  membrane  on  the  nose,  number  of  incisors, 
&c.  &c. 

Galeopithecus,  Pall. 
The  Graleopitheci  differ  generically  from  the  Vespertilios,  in  the  fingers, 
all  armed  with  trenchant  nails,  which  are  not  longer  than  the  toes,  so  that 
the  membrane  which  occupies  their  intervals,  and  extends  to  the  sides  of 
the  tail,  can  only  act  as  a  parachute.  The  canini  are  denticulated  and 
short  like  the  molars.  There  are  two  upper  denticulated  incisors  widely 
separated  from  each  other,  below  there  are  six,  split  into  narrow  strips, 
like  a  comb,  a  structure  altogether  peculiar  to  this  genus.  The  animals 
belonging  to  it  are  found  in  the  Indian  Archipelago,  on  the  trees,  among 
which  they  pursue  Insects,  and  perhaps  Birds.  If  we  can  judge  by  the 
injury  the  teeth  sustain  from  age,  they  use  fruit  also. 

One  species  only  is  well  ascertained,  the  Flying  Lemur.  Fur  greyish 
red  above,  reddish  below;  spotted  and  striped  with  various  shades  of  grey 
when  young.     From  the  Molucca  Islands,  straits  of  Sunda,  &c. 

All  the  other  Carnaria  have  the  mammse  situated  under  the  ab- 
domen. 


FAMILY  II. 

INSECTIVORA. 

The  animals  of  this  family,  like  the  Cheiroptera,  have  grinders 
studded  with  conical  points,  and  lead  a  nocturnal  or  subterraneous 
life.  Their  principal  food  is  Insects,  and  in  cold  climates  many  of 
them  pass  the  winter  in  a  torpid  state.  Unlike  the  Bats,  they  have 
no  lateral  membranes,  although  they  always  have  clavicles.  Their 
feet  are  short  and  their  motions  feeble.  In  walking  they  all  place 
the  whole  sole  of  the  foot  on  the  ground. 

They  differ  from  each  other  by  the  relative  position  and  propor- 
tions of  their  incisors  and  canini. 


64  MAMMALIA. 

Some  have  long  incisors  in  front,  followed  by  other  incisors  and 
canini,  all  even  shorter  than  the  molars,  a  kind  of  dentition  of 
which  tlie  Tarsiers,  among  the  Quadrumana,  have  already  given  us 
an  example,  and  which  somewhat  approximates  these  animals  to  the 
Rodentia.  Others  have  large  separated  canini,  between  which  are 
placed  small  incisors,  the  most  usual  disposition  of  these  parts  among 
the  Quadrumana  and  the  Carnaria;  and  these  two  systems  of  dental 
arrangement  are  found  in  genera,  otherwise  very  similar  in  the  te- 
guments, shape  of  the  limbs,  and  mode  of  life. 

Erinaceus,  Lin. 

The  body  of  the  Hedgehog  is  covered  with  spines  instead  of  hairs.  The 
skin  of  the  back  is  furnished  with  such  muscles,  as,  by  inclining  the  head 
and  feet  towards  the  abdomen,  enable  the  animal  to  shut  himself  up  in  it, 
as  in  a  purse,  presenting  his  spines  on  all  sides  to  the  enemy.  The  tail  is 
very  short,  and  there  are  five  toes  to  each  foot.  There  ai'e  six  incisors  in 
each  jaw,  the  middle  ones  being  the  longest,  and  on  each  side  three  false 
molars,  three  bristled  with  points,  and  a  small  one  studded  with  tu- 
bercles(l). 

E.  europseus,  L. ;  Buff.  (The  Common  Hedgehog.)  Ears  short;  com- 
mon in  the  woods  and  hedges;  passes  the  winter  in  its  burrow.  To 
Insects,  which  constitute  its  ordinary  diet,  it  adds  fruit,  by  which  at  a  cer- 
tain age  its  teeth  become  worn.  The  skin  was  formerly  used  to  dress 
hemp. 

Centenes,  Illig. 
The  body  of  the  Tenrec  is  covered  with  spines  like  the  Hedgehog.  It 
does  not  however  possess  the  faculty  of  rolling  itself  so  completely  into  a 
ball:  there  is  no  tail;  the  muzzle  is  very  pointed,  and  the  teeth  are  very 
different.  There  are  four  or  six  incisors,  and  two  great  canini  in  each 
jaw.  Behind  the  canini  are  one  or  two  small  teeth,  and  four  triangular  and 
bristled  molars.  Three  species  are  found  in  Madagascar,  the  first  of  which 
has  been  naturalized  in  the  Isle  of  France.  It  is  a  nocturnal  animal,  which 
passes  three  months  of  the  year  in  a  state  of  lethargy,  although  inhabiting 
the  torrid  zone.  Brugiere  even  assures  us  that  it  is  during  the  greatest 
heats  that  they  grow  torpid. 

Erinaceus  ecaudatus,  L.  (The  Tenrec.)  Covered  with  stiff  spines;  only 
four  notched  incisors  below.  It  is  the  largest  of  the  three,  and  exceeds 
the  Hedgehog  in  size. 


(1)  Pallas  has  noted  as  an  interesting  fact,  that  the  Hedgehog  eats  hun- 
dreds of  Cantharides  without  inconvenience,  while  a  single  one  produces 
the  most  horrible  agony  in  tlie  Dog  and  the  Cat. 


CARNARIA.  65 


Cladobates,  Fr.  Cuv. 
This  is  a  new  genus  from  the  Indian  Archipelago.  The  teeth  have  much 
affinity  with  those  of  the  Hedgehog;  their  middle  upper  incisors,  however, 
are  proportionally  shorter,  and  the  four  lower  ones  elongated;  there  is 
also  no  tubercular  one  behind.  The  animal  is  covered  with  hair,  has  a 
long  shaggy  tail,  and,  contrary  to  the  habits  of  other  Insectivora,  climbs 
trees  with  the  agility  of  a  Squirrel;  the  pointed  muzzle,  however,  makes 
the  animal  easily  distinguishable  even  at  a  distance. 

SoREX,  Lin. 

The  Shrews  are  generally  small,  and  covered  with  hair.  Under  this,  and 
upon  each  flank,  there  is  a  small  band  of  stiff,  thickly  set  setse,  from  be- 
tween which  oozes  an  odorous  fluid,  the  product  of  a  peculiar  gland.  The 
two  middle  upper  incisors  are  hooked  and  dentated  at  their  base,  the  lower 
ones  slanting  and  elongated:  five  small  teeth  on  each  side  follow  the  first, 
and  two  only  the  second.  There  are  moreover  in  each  jaw  three  bristled 
molars,  and  in  the  upper  one  the  last  is  a  small  tuberculous  tooth.  This 
animal  lives  in  holes  it  excavates  in  the  earth,  which  it  seldom  leaves  till 
evening,  and  lives  on  worms  and  insects. 

Sor.  araneus,  L.  (The  Common  Shrew.)  Grey  above;  ash-coloured 
beneath;  tail  square,  and  not  so  long  as  the  body  by  one-third;  teeth  white; 
ears  naked  and  exposed;  common  in  the  fields,  &c.  There  are  several 
other  species,  one  of  which  (the  Rat-tailed  Shrew)  the  Egyptians  were  in 
the  habit  of  embalming. 

Mygale,  Cuv. 
The  Desmans  diflTer  from  the  Shrews  in  two  very  small  teeth  placed  be- 
tween the  two  great  lower  incisors,  and  in  their  two  upper  incisors  which 
are  flattened  and  triangular.  Behind  these  incisors  are  six  or  seven  small 
teeth  and  four  bristled  molars.  Their  snout  is  drawn  out  into  a  little  flexi- 
ble proboscis,  which  they  keep  constantly  in  motion.  Their  long  tail, 
scaly  and  flattened  on  the  sides,  with  their  feet  of  five  fingers  all  united  by 
membranes,  evidently  proclaim  them  to  be  aquatic  animals.  Their  eyes 
are  very  small,  and  they  have  no  external  ears. 

Sorex  moschatus,  L.  (The  Russian  Muskrat.)  Nearly  as  large  as  a 
Shrew;  above  blackish,  beneath  whitish;  tail  not  so  long  as  the  body  by 
one-fourth.     Southern  Russia. 

Chrysochloeis,  Lacep. 
Animals  of  this  genus,  like  those  of  the  preceding  one,  have  two  incisors 
above  and  four  below;  but  their  grinders  are  long,  distinct  and  almost  all 
shaped  like  triangular  prisms.  Their  muzzle  is  short,  broad,  and  recurved, 
and  their  fore-feet  have  only  three  nails,  of  which  the  external,  that  is  very 
large,  much  arcuated  and  pointed,  serves  them  as  a  powerful  instrument 
I 


66  MAMMALIA. 

for  excavating  and  piercing  the  earth;  the  others  regularly  decrease  in  size. 
The  hind  feet  have  five  of  an  ordinary  size.  They  are  suhterraneous  ani- 
mals, whose  mode  of  life  is  similar  to  that  of  Moles.  To  enable  them  to 
dig  tlie  better,  their  fore-arm  is  supported  by  a  third  bone  placed  under 
the  cubitus. 

C.  asiaticus.  (The  Golden  Mole.)  A  little  smaller  than  the  European 
Mole;  no  apparent  tail;  is  the  only  known  quadruped  that  presents  any 
appearance  of  those  splendid  metallic  tints  which  brighten  and  adorn  so 
many  Bii-ds,  Fishes  and  Insects.  Its  fur  is  a  green,  changing  to  a  copper 
or  bronze;  there  is  no  conch  to  the  ear,  and  the  eye  is  not  perceptible. 

Talpa,  Lin. 
No  one  is  ignorant  of  this  curious  animal,  the  Mole,  whose  form  so  per- 
fectly qualifies  it  for  a  subterraneous  mode  of  life.  A  veiy  short  arm 
attached  to  a  long  scapula,  supported  by  a  powerful  clavicle  and  furnished 
with  enormous  muscles,  sustains  an  extremely  large  hand,  the  palm  of 
which  is  always  directed  either  outwards  or  backwards;  the  lower  edge  of 
this  hand  is  trenchant,  the  fingers  are  scarcely  perceptible,  but  the  nails  in 
which  they  terminate  are  long,  flat,  strong  and  sharp.  Such  is  the  instru- 
ment employed  by  the  Mole  to  tear  the  earth  and  throw  it  behind  it.  Its 
sternum,  like  that  of  Birds  and  Bats,  has  a  process  which  gives  to  the  pec- 
toral muscles  the  size  that  is  required  for  their  functions.  To  pierce  and 
raise  up  the  earth,  it  makes  use  of  its  long  pointed  head,  whose  muzzle  is 
armed  at  its  extremity  with  a  peculiar  little  bone,  and  whose  muscles  are 
extremely  powerful.  There  is  even  an  additional  bone  in  the  cervical 
ligament.  It  has  but  little  power  behind,  and  moves  as  slowly  above 
ground  as  it  advances  rapidly  under  it.  Its  sense  of  hearing  is  very  acute, 
and  the  tympanum  very  large,  although  there  is  no  external  ear;  its  eyes 
are  so  small  and  so  hidden  by  the  hair,  that  for  a  long  time  their  existence 
was  positively  denied.  The  jaws  are  weak,  and  the  food  consists  of 
Worms,  Insects,  and  some  soft  roots.  There  are  six  incisors  above  and 
eight  below.  The  canini  have  two  roots,  which  causes  them  to  partake  of 
the  nature  of  false  molars;  back  of  them  are  four  false  molars  above  and 
three  below,  after  which  are  three  bristled  molars. 

T.  europsea,  L.;  Buff.  (T)ie  Common  Mole.)  Pointed  muzzle,  hair 
soft  and  black;  individuals  are  found  white,  fawn-coloured  and  piebald — 
a  vexatious  animal  in  cultivated  grounds. 

CONDYLURA,  Illig. 
In  the  animals  belonging  to  this  genus,  the  two  kinds  of  dentition  peculiar 
to  the  Insectivora  seem  to  be  combined.  In  the  upper  jaw  are  two  large 
triangular  incisors,  two  extremely  small  and  slender  ones,  and  on  each  side 
a  strong  canine.  In  the  lower  one  are  four  incisors  slanting  forwards,  and 
a  pointed  but  small  canine.  The  superior  false  molars  are  triangular  and 
separated,  the  inferior  trenchant  and  denticulated. 

Inthcu'  feet  and  the  whole  of  their  exterior  they  resemble  the  Mole,  but 


CARNARIA.  67 

their  tail  is  longer,  and  what  more  particularly  serves  to  distinguish  them 
from  the  former  is,  that  their  nostrils  are  surrounded  with  little  movable 
cartilaginous  points,  which,  when  they  separate,  radiate  like  a  kind  of  star. 
One  species  particularly  is  found  in  North  America — Sorex  cristatus,  L. 
(The  Radiated  Mole)  similar  to  the  Mole  of  Europe,  the  nose  excepted, 
but  having  a  tail  more  than  double  the  length  of  that  of  the  latter. 

ScALOPS,  Cuv. 
Teeth  very  similar  to  those  of  the  Desmans,  except  that  the  small  or  false 
molars  are  less  numerous,  the  muzzle  is  simply  pointed,  like  that  of  the 
Shrew;  their  hands  are  widened,  armed  with  strong  nails  fitted  to  excavate 
the  earth,  and  exactly  similar  to  those  of  Moles:  in  fact  their  mode  of  life 
is  tlie  same;  their  eyes  are  equally  as  small,  and  their  ears  quite  as  much 
hidden.     The  only  species  known  is  the 

iS^.  aquaticus.  It  appears  to  inhabit  a  great  part  of  North  America,  along 
rivers,  &c.  Its  external  resemblance  to  the  common  Mole  of  Europe(l) 
is  so  great,  that  it  is  easy  to  mistake  the  one  for  the  other. 


FAMILY  III. 

CARNIVORA. 

Although  the  term  carnivorous  is  applicable  to  all  unguiculated 
animals,  not  quadrumanate,  that  have  three  sorts  of  teeth,  inasmuch 
as  they  all  use  more  or  less  animal  aliment,  there  are,  however, 
many  of  them,  the  two  preceding  families  especially,  which  are 
compelled  by  weakness  and  the  conical  tubercles  of  their  grinders 
to  live  almost  entirely  on  Insects.  It  is  in  the  present  family  that 
the  sanguinary  appetite  for  flesh  is  joined  to  the  force  necessary  to 
obtain  it.  There  are  always  four  stout,  long,  and  separated  canini, 
between  which  are  six  incisors  in  each  jaw,  the  root  of  the  second 
of  the  lower  ones  being  placed  a  little  more  inwards  than  the  others. 
The  molars  are  either  wholly  trenchant,  or  have  some  blunted  tu- 
berculous parts,  but  they  are  never  bristled  with  conical  points. 

These  animals  are  so  much  the  more  exclusively  carnivorous,  as 
their  teeth  are  the  more  completely  trenchant,  and  the  proportions 
of  their  regimen  may  be  calculated  from  the  extent  of  the  tubercu- 
lous surface  of  their  teeth,  compared  with  that  which  is  trenchant. 
The  Bears,  which  can  subsist  altogether  on  vegetables,  have  nearly 
all  their  teeth  tuberculated. 


(1)  It  is  the  Common  Mole  of  the  United  States.     £m.  Ed. 


68  MAMMALIA. 

The  anterior  molars  are  the  most  trenchant;  next  comes  a  molar, 
larger  than  the  others,  usually  furnished  with  a  larger  or  smaller 
tuberculous  heel;  then  follow  one  or  two  small  teeth,  that  are  per- 
fectly flat.  It  is  with  these  small  teeth  in  the  back  part  of  the 
mouth  that  the  Dog  chews  the  grass  he  sometimes  swallows.  We 
will  call,  with  M.  Fr.  Cuvier,  this  large  upper  molar,  and  its  cor- 
responding one  below,  carnivorous  teeth;  the  anterior  pointed  ones, 
false  molars;  and  the  posterior  blunted  ones,  tuberculous  teeth. 

It  is  easy  to  conceive  that  those  genera  which  have  the  fewest 
false  molars,  and  whose  jaws  are  the  shortest,  are  those  best  adapted 
for  biting. 

It  is  upon  these  differences  that  the  genera  can  be  most  surely 
established. 

It  is  necessary,  however,  that  the  consideration  of  the  hind  foot 
should  be  added  to  them. 

Several  genera,  like  those  of  the  two  preceding  families,  in  walk- 
ing, or  when  they  stand  erect,  place  the  whole  sole  of  the  foot  on 
the  ground,  a  fact  proved  by  the  total  want  of  hair  on  that  part  of  it. 

Others,  and  by  far  the  greater  number,  walk  on  the  ends  of  the 
toes,  by  raising  up  the  tarsus.  They  are  much  swifter,  and  to  this 
first  difference  are  added  many  others  of  habits,  and  even  of  inter- 
nal conformation.  In  both  the  clavicle  is  a  mere  bony  rudiment 
suspended  in  the  muscles.     The 

PLANTIGRADA 

Form  this  first  tribe,  in  which  the  whole  sole  of  the  foot  is  placed 
on  the  ground  in  walking,  a  circumstance  which  gives  them  a 
greater  facility  in  standing  vertically  upon  their  hinder  feet.  They 
partake  of  the  slowness  and  nocturnal  life  of  the  Insectivora;  most 
of  those  that  inhabit  cold  countries  pass  the  winter  in  a  state  of  tor- 
por.    They  all  have  five  toes  to  each  foot. 

Uksus,  Lin. 
Sears  have  three  large  molars  on  each  side  In  each  jaw,  altogether  tuber- 
culous, and  of  which  the  posterior  upper,  and  anterior  lower  are  the 
longest.  They  are  preceded  by  a  tooth  a  little  more  trenchant,  which  is 
one  of  the  carnivorous  teeth  of  this  genus,  and  by  a  variable  number  of  very 
small  false  molars,  which  are  sometimes  shed  at  a  very  early  period.  This 
almost  frugivorous  sort  of  dentition  is  the  reason  why,  notwithstanding 
their  great  strength,  they  seldom  eat  flesh  unless  from  necessity. 

They  are  large,  stout-bodied  animals,  with  thick  limbs,  and  a  very  short 
tall:  the  cartilage  of  the  nose  is  elongated  and  movable.     They  excavate 


CARNARIA.  69 

dens  or  construct  huts,  in  which  they  pass  the  winter  in  a  state  of  somno- 
lency more  or  less  profound,  and  without  food.  It  is  in  these  retreats  that 
the  female  bring's  forth  her  young-. 

The  species  are  not  easily  distinguished  by  apparent  characters. 

U.  americanus,  Gm.  (The  North  American  Black  Bear.)  A  very  dis- 
tinct species,  with  a  flat  forehead,  smooth  and  black  fur,  and  fawn-coloured 
muzzle.  We  have  always  found  the  small  teeth  behind  the  canini  more 
numerous  in  this  Bear  than  in  the  European  species.  Individuals  have 
been  seen  that  were  entirely  fawn-coloured.  Its  usual  food  is  wild  fruits; 
it  devastates  the  fields,  and,  where  fish  is  abundant,  proceeds  to  the  shores 
for  the  purpose  of  catching  it.  It  is  only  for  want  of  other  aliment  that  it 
attacks  quadrupeds.  The  flesh  is  held  in  great  esteem.  Various  species 
are  known,  such  as  the  Polar  Bear,  Thibet  Bear,  Malay  Bear,  Thick-lipped 
Bear,  and  our  Grisly-Bear. 

Procyon,  Storr. 
The  Raccoons  have  three  back  tuberculous  molars,  the  superior  of  which 
are  nearly  square,  and  three  pointed  false  molars  in  front,  forming  a  con- 
tinuous series  to  the  canines,  which  are  straight  and  compressed.  The 
tail  is  long-,  but  the  remainder  of  the  exterior  is  that  of  a  Bear  in  miniature. 
They  rest  the  whole  sole  of  the  foot  on  the  ground  only  when  they  stand 
still;  when  they  walk,  they  raise  the  heel. 

P.  lotor.  (The  Raccoon.)  Greyish  brown;  muzzle  white;  a  brown 
streak  across  the  eyes;  tail  marked  with  brown  and  white  rings.  This 
animal  is  about  the  size  of  a  Badger,  is  easily  tamed,  and  remarked  for  a 
singular  habit  of  eating  nothing  it  has  not  previously  dipped  in  water. 
From  North  America — lives  on  eggs.  Birds,  &c. 

AiLURUs,  Fred.  Cuv. 

The  Panda  appears  to  approximate  to  the  Raccoon  in  its  canini,  and  what 
is  known  of  its  other  teeth;  with  this  exception,  that  it  has  only  one  false 
molar.  The  head  is  short;  tail  long;  walk  plantigrade;  five  toes  with  re- 
tractile claws.     One  species  only  is  known,  the 

j1.  refulgens,  Fred.  Cuv.  Size  of  a  large  Cat;  fur  soft  and  thickly  set; 
above  of  the  most  brilliant  cinnamon  red;  behind  more  fawn-coloui'ed;  be- 
neath of  a  deep  black.  The  head  is  whitish,  and  the  tail  marked  with 
brown  rings.     From  the  north  of  India. 

IcTiDES,  Valeri. 
The  Benturong  is  somewhat  related  to  the  Raccoon  by  its  teeth,  but  the 
three  upper  back  molars  are  much  smaller  and  less  tuberculous,  the  last 
one  in  each  jaw  particularly,  which  is  very  small  and  nearly  simple.  It  is 
covered  with  long  hair,  and  has  a  tuft  at  each  ear.  The  tail  is  long,  hairy, 
and  has  a  propensity  to  curl,  as  if  prehensile.     From  India. 

Id.  albifrons,  Fr.  Cuv.  Grey;  tall  and  sides  of  the  muzzle  black;  size 
that  of  a  large  Cat.     From  Bootan. 


70  MAMMALIA. 


Nasua,  Storr. 
The  Coatis,  to  the  teeth,  tail,  nocturnal  habit,  and  slow  dragging  gait  of 
the  Raccoon,  add  a  singularly  elongated  and  flexible  snout.  The  feet  are 
semi-palmate,  notwithstanding  which  they  climb  trees.  Their  long  claws 
are  used  for  digging.  They  inhabit  the  warm  climates  of  America,  and 
their  diet  is  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the  Marten  of  Europe. 

Viverra  nasua,  L.  (The  Red  Coati.)  Reddish  fawn  colour;  muzzle 
brown;  tail  with  brown  rings. 

This  is  perhaps  the  only  proper  place  for  the  singular  genus  of  the  Kiir- 
KAJous  or  Potto,  Cuv.  which,  to  a  plantigrade  walk,  adds  a  long  prehen- 
sile tail  like  that  of  the  Sapajous,  a  short  muzzle,  a  slender  and  extensible 
tongue,  two  pointed  grinders  before,  and  three  tuberculous  ones  behind. 

Only  one  species  is  known,  the  Viverra  caudivolvula,  Gm.  From  the 
warm  parts  of  America  and  from  the  great  Antilles,  where  it  is  called  Potto; 
size  of  a  Polecat;  hair  woolly,  and  of  a  grey  or  yellowish  brown;  habits 
nocturnal;  of  a  mild  disposition,  and  lives  on  fruit,  milk,  honey,  blood,  &c. 

Meles,  Storr. 
The  Badgers,  which  Linnjeus  placed  with  the  Raccoons  in  the  genus 
Ursus,  have  a  very  small  tooth  behind  the  canine,  then  two  pointed  molars 
followed  in  the  upper  jaw  by  one  that  we  begin  to  recognize  as  carnivorous 
from  the  trenchant  vestige  it  exhibits  on  its  outer  side;  behind  this  is  a 
square  tuberculous  one,  the  largest  of  all.  Below,  the  penultimate  begins 
to  show  a  resemblance  to  the  inferior  carnivorous  teeth,  but  as  there  are 
two  tubercles  on  its  internal  border  as  elevated  as  its  trenchant  edge,  it  acts 
as  a  tuberculous  one;  the  last  below  is  very  small. 

The  slow  movements  of  the  Badgers  and  their  nocturnal  habits  are  like 
those  of  the  preceding  animals;  their  tail  is  short,  the  toes  are  much  en- 
veloped in  the  skin,  and  they  are  otherwise  peculiarly  distinguished  by  a 
sac  under  the  tail,  from  which  oozes  a  fatty,  fetid  humour.  The  long  claws 
of  their  fore-feet  enable  them  to  dig  with  great  effect. 

M.  europxa.  (The  European  Badger.)  Greyish  above,  black  beneath, 
a  blackish  band  on  each  side  of  the  head(l). 

GuLo,  Storr. 

Linnsus  also  placed  the  Gluttons  among  the  Bears,  but  they  approximate 
much  nearer  to  the  Weasels  in  their  teeth  as  well  as  in  their  habits,  the 
only  relation  they  have  to  the  former  consisting  in  their  plantigrade  mo- 
tion. They  have  three  false  molars  above  and  four  below,  immediately 
antecedent  to  the  carnivorous  teeth,  which  are  well  characterized,  and  be- 
hind them  two  small  tuberculous  ones,  the  upper  being  more  broad  than 
long.     Their  superior  carnivorous  tooth  has  only  one  small  tubercle  on  the 


(1)  The  American  Badger.    Mel.  hudsonius  is  a  different  species. — Am. 
Ed. 


CARNARIA.  71 

inner  side,  and  in  fact,  the  whole  dental  system  is  nearly  the  same  as  that 
of  the  Weasels.  The  tail  is  of  a  middling  size,  with  a  plait  or  fold  beneatli 
in  place  of  a  sac,  and  the  port  of  the  animal  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the 
Badger. 

The  most  celebrated  species  is  the  Glutton  of  the  north,  the  Ursus  guh, 
Li.  (The  Common  Glutton.)  About  the  size  of  the  Badger;  usually  of  a 
fine  deep  maronne  colour,  with  a  disk  on  the  back  of  a  darker  brown; 
sometimes,  however,  the  shades  are  lighter.  It  inhabits  the  most  glacial 
regions  of  the  North,  is  considered  very  sanguinary  and  ferocious,  hunts 
during  the  night,  does  not  become  torpid  during  the  winter,  and  masters 
the  largest  animals  by  leaping  upon  them  from  the  top  of  a  tree.  Its  vora- 
city has  been  ridiculously  exaggerated  by  some  authors.  The  Wolverene 
of  North  America  (Ursus  luscus,  Lin.)  does  not  appear  to  differ  from  it  in 
any  constant  character — its  colours,  however,  are  generally  lighter. 

Hot  climates  produce  some  species  which  can  only  be  placed  near  the 
Gluttons,  as  they  differ  from  them  merely  in  having  one  false  molar  less  in 
each  jaw,  and  in  a  long  tail.  Such  are  the  animals,  termed  by  the  inhabit- 
ants of  South  America  Ferrety  which,  having  the  teeth  of  our  Ferrets  and 
Polecats,  have,  in  fact,  similar  habits — they  are  distinguished  from  them 
however,  by  their  plantigrade  motion. 

Viverra  vittata,  Li.  (The  Grison. )  Black;  top  of  the  head  and  neck 
g^ey;  a  white  band,  reaching  from  the  forehead  to  the  shoulders. 

Rateius,  F.  C. 

The  Ratek  have  a  false  molar  in  each  jaw  less  than  the  Grison,  and  their 
upper  tuberculous  tooth  is  but  slightly  developed,  so  that  in  the  teeth  they 
approach  the  Cat,  while  their  whole  exterior  is  that  of  the  Grison  or  Bad- 
ger. The  legs  are  short;  feet  plantigrade,  and  five  toes  to  each;  nails  very 
strong,  &c.  &c. 

One  species  only  is  known,  the  Viverra  mellivora,  Sparm.  Size  of  the 
European  Badger;  grey  above;  black  beneath,  with  a  white  line  that  sepa- 
rates the  two  colours;  sometimes  it  is  nearly  all  white  above.  It  inhabits 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  digs  up  the  earth  with  its  long  claws,  in 
search  of  the  honey-combs  of  the  wild  bees.     The 

DIGITIGRADA 

Form  the  second  tribe  of  the  Carnivora.  The  animals  which 
compose  it  walk  on  the  ends  of  their  toes. 

In  the  first  subdivision  there  is  only  one  tuberculous  tooth  behind 
the  upper  carnivorus;  these  animals,  on  account  of  the  length  of 
their  body,  and  the  shortness  of  their  legs,  which  permit  them  to 
pass  through  the  smallest  openings,  have  been  styled  vermiform. 
They  are  not  torpid  during  the  winter.  Linnaius  placed  them  all 
in  one  genus,  that  of 


72  MAMMALIA. 

MusTELA,  Lin. , 
Or  the  Weasels,  which  we  will  divide  into  four  subgenera. 

PuTORitrs,  Cuv. 

The  Polecats  are  the  most  sanguinary  of  all;  the  lower  carnivorous  tooth 
has  no  inner  tubercle,  and  the  superior  tuberculous  one  is  more  broad  than 
long;  there  are  only  two  false  molars  above  and  three  below.  These  ani- 
mals are  externally  recognised  by  their  muzzle,  which  is  shorter  and  thicker 
than  that  of  the  Weasel.     They  all  diffuse  a  most  horrible  stench. 

Mustela  putorius,  L.  Buff.  (The  Common  Polecat.)  Brown;  flanks 
yellowish;  white  spots  on  the  head;  the  terror  of  poultry  yards  and  warrens. 

M.  lutreola.  Pall.  (The  Mink  or  Norek.)  It  frequents  the  shores  of 
rivers,  &c.,  in  the  north  and  east  of  Europe  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the 
Black  Sea,  and  lives  on  frogs  and  crabs.  The  feet  are  slightly  palmated 
at  the  base  of  the  toes,  but  the  teeth  and  round  tail  approximate  it 
nearer  to  the  Polecat  than  the  Otter.  It  is  of  a  reddish  brown;  the  circum- 
ference of  the  lips  and  the  under  part  of  the  jaw  white;  it  exhales  a  musky 
odour,  and  is  much  esteemed  for  its  well  known  i'ur.  It  is  the  Mink  of  the 
United  States. 

McsTEiA,  Cuv. 

The  true  Weasels  differ  from  the  Polecats  in  having  an  additional  false 
molar  above  and  below,  and  in  the  existence  of  a  small  internal  tubercle 
on  their  inferior  carnivorous  tooth,  two  characters  which  somewhat  diminish 
the  cruelty  of  their  nature. 

M.  martes,  L.  (The  Common  Marten.)  Brown,  a  yellow  spot  under 
the  throat.     Inhabits  the  woods.     Siberia  produces  the 

M.  zibellina,  Pall.  (The  Sable.)  Highly  valued  for  its  rich  fur, 
brown,  spotted  with  white  about  the  head,  and  distinguished  from  the 
preceding  ones  by  the  extension  of  the  hair  to  the  under  surface  of  the 
toes.  It  inhabits  the  coldest  mountains,  and  the  hunting  to  obtain  it.  In 
the  midst  of  winter  and  tremendous  snows,  is  a  perilous  and  painful  under- 
taking. It  is  to  the  pursuit  of  this  animal  that  we  owe  the  discovery  of  the 
eastern  countries  of  Siberia. 

North  America  also  possesses  several  Martens  indicated  by  naturalists 
and  travellers,  under  the  indefinite  names  of  Pekan,  Vison,  Mink,  &c. 

One  of  them,  the  White  Vtson  of  the  furriers.  Mus.  leutreocephala, 
Harl.,  has  as  hairy  feet  and  almost  as  soft  afur  as  the  Sable,  but  is  of  a  light 
fawn  colour,  and  almost  white  about  the  head. 

That  which  we  call  the  Pekan;  Must,  canadensis,  Gm.,  and  which  comes 
from  Canada  and  the  United  States;  is  of  a  brownish  colour,  mixed  with 
white  on  the  head,  neck,  shoulders  and  top  of  the  back;  nose,  crupper,  tail 
and  limbs  blackish. 

Mephitis,  Cuv. 
The  Skunk,  like  the  Polecat,  has  two  false  molars  above  and  three  be- 


CARNARIA.  73 

low,  but  the  superior  tuberculous  one  is  very  large,  and  as  long  as  it  is 
broad,  and  the  inferior  carnivorus  has  two  tubercles  on  its  internal  side, 
circumstances  which  ally  it  to  the  Badger  just  as  the  Polecat  approximates 
to  the  Grlson  and  Glutton.  Independently  of  this,  the  anterior  nails  of 
the  Skunk,  like  those  of  the  Badger,  are  long  and  fitted  for  digging;  they 
are  moreover  semi-plantigrade,  and  the  resemblance  extends  even  to  the 
distribution  of  their  colours.  The  whole  family  are  remarkable  for  their 
fetid  exhalations,  but  the  Skunk  is  pre-eminently  distinguished  by  its 
most  horrible  and  suffocating  stench. 

Skunks  are  generally  marked  with  white  stripes  on  a  black  ground,  but 
the  number  of  stripes  appears  to  vary  in  the  same  species.  The  most 
common  species  of  North  America  is  the 

M.  puiorius.  (The  American  Skunk.)  Black,  with  stripes  of  white, 
larger  or  smaller,  and  more  or  less  numerous;  the  tail  is  black,  and  the  tip 
white.  The  odour  it  produces  resembles  that  of  the  Polecat,  mingled  with 
a  strong  smell  of  garlic — nothing  is  more  nauseous. 

LuTKA,  Storr. 

The  Otters  have  three  false  molars  in  each  jaw,  a  strong  heel  to  the  su- 
perior carnivorus,  a  tuberculus  on  the  inner  side  of  the  inferior  one,  and 
a  large  tuberculous  tooth  above  that  is  nearly  as  long  as  it  is  broad.  The 
head  is  compressed,  and  the  tongue  demi-asperate.  They  are  otherwise 
distinguished  from  all  the  preceding  subgenera  by  palmated  feet,  and  a 
horizontally  flattened  tail,  two  characters  which  i-ender  them  aquatic. 
Their  food  is  fish. 

L.  vulgaris.  (The  Common  Otter.)  Brown  above,  whitish  round  the 
lips,  on  the  cheeks  and  the  whole  inferior  surface  of  the  body.  It  is 
sometimes  found  spotted  and  whitish.     From  the  rivers  of  Europe. 

Several  otters  differ  but  little  from  the  above.  That  of  Carolina,  L. 
lataxiiia,  Fr.  Cuv.,  becomes  a  little  larger,  is  sometimes  more  deeply  co- 
loured, and  has  a  brownish  tint  beneath;  very  frequently,  however,  there 
is  no  difference  even  in  the  shades  of  colour. 

Mustela  lutra  brasiliensis,  Gm.  (The  American  Otter.)  Brown  or  fawn- 
coloured;  throat  white  or  yellowish;  a  little  larger  than  the  European  Ot- 
ter; the  body  is  also  longer,  and  the  hair  shorter.  It  is  distinguished  by 
the  end  of  the  nose,  which  is  not  naked  as  in  most  animals,  but  is  covered 
with  hair  like  the  rest  of  the  chanfrin.     From  the  rivers  of  both  Americas. 

Mustela  lutris,  L.  (The  Sea-Otter.)  Size,  double  that  of  the  European 
species;  body  much  elongated;  tall  one-third  the  length  of  the  body;  the 
hind  feet  very  short.  There  is  sometimes  white  about  the  head.  It  has 
only  four  incisors  below,  but  the  molars  are  like  those  of  the  other  Otters. 
Its  blackish  velvet  looking  fur  is  extremely  valuable  to  obtain  which  the 
English  and  Russians  hunt  the  animal  throughout  the  northern  parts  of 
the  Pacific  ocean. 
K 


74  MAMMALIA. 

In  the  second  subdivision  of  tlie  Digitigiada  there  are  two  flat 
tuberculous  teeth,  behind  the  superior  carnivorous  tooth,  which  is 
itself  furnished  with  a  large  heel.  They  are  carnivorous,  but  do  not 
exhibit  a  courage  proportioned  to  their  powers,  and  frequently  feed 
on  carrion. 

Canis,  Lin. 

Dogs  have  three  false  molars  above,  four  below,  and  two  tuberculous  teeth 
behind  each  of  the  carnivori;  the  first  of  these  upper  tuberculous  teeth  is 
very  large.  Their  superior  carnivorus  has  only  a  small  inner  tubercle,  but 
the  posterior  portion  of  the  inferior  is  altogether  tuberculous.  The  tongue 
is  soft;  the  fore-feet  have  five  toes,  and  the  hind  ones  four. 

C.  familiaris,  L.  (The  Domestic  Dog).  Distinguished  by  his  recurved 
tail,  otherwise  varying  infinitely,  as  to  size,  form,  colour  and  quality  of  the 
hair.  He  is  the  most  complete,  singular  and  useful  conquest  ever  made 
by  man;  the  whole  species  has  become  his  property;  each  individual  is 
devoted  to  his  particular  master,  assumes  his  manners,  knows  and  defends 
his  possessions,  and  remains  his  true  and  faithful  friend  till  death — and  all 
this  neither  from  constraint  nor  want,  but  solely  from  the  purest  gratitude 
and  the  truest  friendship.  The  swiftness,  strength  and  scent  of  the  Dog 
have  rendered  him  Man's  powerful  ally  against  all  other  animals,  and  were 
even,  perhaps,  necessary  to  the  establishment  of  society.  Of  all  animals, 
he  is  the  only  one  which  has  followed  Man  through  every  region  of  the 
globe. 

Some  naturalists  think  the  Dog  is  a  Wolf,  and  others  that  he  is  a  domesti- 
cated Jackal,  and  yet  those  dogs  which  have  become  wild  again  in  desert 
islands  resemble  neither  the  one  nor  the  other.  The  wild  dogs,  and  those  that 
belong  to  savages,  such  as  the  inhabitants  of  New  Holland,  have  sti-aight 
ears,  which  has  occasioned  a  belief  that  the  European  races,  which  approach 
the  most  to  the  oi'iginal  type,  are  the  Shepherd's  Dog  and  Wolf  Dog;  but 
the  comparison  of  the  crania  indicates  a  closer  affinity  in  the  MastiflP  and 
Danish  Dog,  subsequently  to  which  come  the  Hound,  the  Pointer,  and  the 
Terrier,  differing  between  themselves  only  in  size  and  the  proportions  of 
the  limbs.  The  Greyhound  is  longer  and  more  lank;  its  frontal  sinuses  are 
smaller,  and  its  scent  weaker.  The  Shepherd's  Dog  and  the  Wolf  Dog  re- 
sume the  straight  ears  of  the  wild  ones,  but  with  a  greater  cerebral  devel- 
opment, which  continues  to  increase  together  with  the  intelligence  in  the 
Barhet  and  the  Spaniel.  The  Bull  Dog,  on  the  other  hand,  is  remarkable 
for  the  shortness  and  strength  of  his  jaws.  The  small  pet-dogs,  the  Pugs, 
Spaniels,  Shocks,  &c.  are  the  most  degenerate  productions,  and  exhibit  the 
most  striking  marks  of  that  power  to  which  man  subjects  all  nature. 

The  dog  is  born  with  his  eyes  closed;  he  opens  them  on  the  tenth  or 
twelfth  day;  his  teeth  commence  changing  in  the  fourth  month,  and  his 
full  growth  is  attained  at  the  explication  of  the  second  year.  The  dog  is 
old  at  fifteen  years,  and  seldom  lives  beyond  twenty.  His  vigilance,  bark, 
and  susceptibility  of  education  are  well  known  to  every  one. 


C  A  UN  ARIA.  75 

C.  lupus,  L.  (The  AVolf.)  A  large  species  with  a  straight  tail;  legs 
fawn-coloured,  with  a  black  stripe  on  the  fore-legs  when  adult;  the  most 
mischievous  of  all  the  Carnaria  of  Europe.  It  is  found  from  Egypt  to  Lap- 
land, and  appears  to  have  passed  into  America.  Towards  the  north,  in 
winter,  its  fur  becomes  white.  It  attacks  all  our  animals,  yet  does  not  ex- 
hibit a  courage  proportioned  to  its  strength.  It  often  feeds  on  carrion.  Its 
habits  and  physical  development  are  closely  related  to  those  of  the  Dog. 

C.  juhaius,  Cuv.;  ^goura-Gouazou,  Azzar.  (The  Red  Wolf)  A  fine 
cinnamon-red:  a  short  black  mane  along  the  spine.  From  the  marshes  of 
South  America. 

C.  aureus,  L..  (The  Chacal  or  Jackal.)  Less  than  the  preceding;  the 
muzzle  more  pointed;  of  a  greyish  brown;  thighs  and  legs  of  a  light  fawn 
colour;  some  red  on  the  ear;  the  tail  scarcely  reaching  further  than  the 
heel.  It  is  a  voracious  animal,  which  hunts  like  the  Dog,  and  in  its  con- 
formation and  the  facility  with  which  it  is  tamed,  resembles  the  latter  more 
closely  than  any  otlier  wild  species.  Jackals  are  found  from  the  Indies 
and  the  environs  of  the  Cispian  sea,  as  far  as,  and  in  Guinea;  it  is  not  cer- 
tain, however,  that  they  are  all  of  one  species.  Those  of  Senegal  for  in- 
stance, C  anihus,  Fr.  Cuv.,  stand  higher,  appear  to  have  a  sharper  muzzle, 
and  the  tail  a  little  longer. 

Foxes  may  be  distinguished  from  tlie  Wolf  and  Dog  by  a  longer  and  more 
tufted  tail,  by  a  more  pointed  muzzle,  by  pupils  which  during  the  day 
form  a  vertical  fissure,  and  by  the  upper  incisors  being  less  sloping.  They 
diffuse  a  fetid  odour,  dig  burrows,  and  attack  none  but  the  weaker  animals. 
This  subgenus  is  more  numerous  than  the  preceding  one. 

C.vulpes,h.  (The  Common  Fox.)  More  or  less  red;  tip  of  the  tail  white; 
found  from  Sweden  to  Egypt.  Those  of  tlie  north  have  merely  a  more 
brilliant  fur. 

The  prairies  of  North  America  produce  a  little  Fox,  C.  velox,  Harl.  and 
Say;  which  lives  in  burrows. 

C.  cinereo-argenteus,  Schreb.  (The  Tri-coloured  Fox  of  America. )  Ash- 
coloured  above;  white  beneath;  a  cinnamon-red  band  along  the  flanks. 
From  all  the  warm  and  temperate  parts  of  the  two  Americas. 

C,  argentatus.  (The  Silver  or  Black  Fox.)  Black;  tips  of  the  hairs 
white,  except  on  the  ears,  shoulders  and  tail,  where  they  are  of  a  pure 
black.  The  end  of  the  tail  is  all  white.  From  North  America.  Its  fur  is 
most  beautiful,  and  very  costly. 

The  interior  of  Africa  produces  Foxes  remarkable  for  the  size  of  their 
ears,  and  the  strength  of  the  hairs  oftheir  mustachios;  they  are  the  Mega- 
I.OTIS  of  Illiger. 

Finally,  we  may  place  after  the  Dogs,  as  a  fourth  subgenus,  distinguished 
by  the  number  of  toes,  which  is  four  to  each  foot,  the 

Hyaena  venatica,  Bursch.  (The  Wild  Dog  of  the  Cape.)  It  has  the 
dental  system  of  the  Dog  and  not  that  of  the  Hyena;  a  long  and  thin  form; 
the  fur  mottled,  with  white  and  fawn  colour,  grey  and  black;  size  of  the  wolf; 
large  ears  with  black  tips,  &c.  It  is  gregarious,  and  frequently  approaches 
Cape  Town,  devastating  its  environs. 


76  MAMMALIA. 

ViVEKRA. 

The  Civets  have  three  false  molars  above  and  four  below,  the  anterior  of 
which  sometimes  fall  out;  two  tolerably  large  tuberculous  teeth  above,  one 
only  below,  and  two  tubercles  projecting  forwards  on  the  inner  side  of  the 
inferior  carnivorus,  the  rest  of  that  tooth  being  more  or  less  tuberculous. 
The  tongue  is  bristled  with  sharp  and  rough  papillae.  Their  claws  are 
more  or  less  raised  as  they  walk,  and  near  the  buttock  is  a  pouch  more  or 
less  deep,  where  an  unctuous  and  frequently  an  odorous  matter  oozes  from 
peculiar  glands.    They  are  divided  into  four  subgenera. 

VivEKKA,  Cuv. 

In  the  true  Civets  there  is  a  deep  pouch  divided  Into  two  sacs,  filled  with 
an  abundant  pommade  of  a  strong  musky  odour,  secreted  by  glands  which 
surround  it.  This  substance  is  an  article  of  commerce,  and  is  used  by  the 
perfumers.  It  was  niore  employed  when  musk  and  ambergrease  were 
unknown.  The  pupil  of  the  eye  remains  round  during  the  day,  and  their 
claws  are  only  semi-retractile. 

V.  civetta,  L.  (The  Civet.)  Ash-coloured,  irregularly  barred  and  spot- 
ted with  black;  the  tail  less  than  tlie  body,  black  towards  the  end,  withfour 
or  five  rings  near  its  base;  two  black  bands  encircling  the  throat,  and  one 
suri'ounding  the  face;  a  mane  along  the  whole  length  of  the  spine  and  tail 
that  bristles  up  at  the  will  of  the  animal.     From  the  hottest  parts  of  Africa. 

Genetta,  Cuv. 

In  the  Genets  the  pouch  is  reduced  to  a  slight  depression  formed  by  the 
projection  of  the  glands,  and  has  scarcely  any  visible  excretion,  although 
an  odour  is  diff"used  from  it  that  is  very  perceptible.  In  the  light  the 
pupil  forms  a  vertical  fissure,  and  the  nails  are  completely  retractile,  as  in 
the  Cat. 

V.  genetta,  L.  (The  Common  Genet.)  Grey  spotted  with  brown  or 
black,  the  muzzle  biackish;  white  spots  on  the  eyebrows,  clieeks  and  each 
side  of  the  end  of  the  nose;  tail  the  length  of  the  bod}^  annulated  with 
black  and  white,  the  black  rings  being  from  nine  to  eleven  in  number. 
Found  from  the  south  of  France  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  frequents  the 
edges  of  brooks,  near  springs,  8ic.  The  skin  forms  an  important  article  of 
trade. 

Pahadoxurus,  Fr.  Cuv. 

Has  the  teeth  and  most  of  the  characters  of  the  Genets,  with  which  it 
was  a  long  time  confounded;  it  is  however  more  stout-limbed;  the  feet  are 
semi-palmate,  and  the  walk  nearly  plantigrade,  but  what  particularly  dis- 
tinguishes it  is  the  spiral  inclination  of  the  tail,  which  is  not  prehensile. 
Only  one  species  is  known,  the 

P.  typus,  Fr.  Cuv.  (The  Pougoune  of  India)  A  yellowish-brown,  with 
some  spots  of  a  deeper  brown  than  the  rest;  the  feet,  muzzle  and  part  of 
the  tail  blackish;  eye-brows  white,  and  a  white  spot  under  the  eye. 


CARNARIA.  77 

Mangcsta,  Cuv. — Herpestes,  lUig-. 

The  pouch  is  voluminous  and  simple.  The  hairs  are  annulatecl  with 
light  and  obscure  tints,  which  determine  their  general  colour  on  the  eye. 

The  Mangouste  of  Egypt,  so  celebrated  among  the  ancients  under  the 
name  of  Ichneumon,  is  grey,  with  a  long  tail  terminated  with  a  black  tuft; 
it  is  larger  than  our  Cat,  and  as  slender  as  a  Marten.  It  chiefly  hunts  for 
the  eggs  of  the  Crocodile,  but  also  feeds  on  all  sorts  of  small  animals;  brought 
up  in  houses,  it  hunts  Mice,  Reptiles,  &c.  15y  the  Europeans  at  Cairo  it  is 
called  Pharaoh's  Hat;  by  the  natives,  Nems.  The  ancient  tradition  of  its 
jumping  down  the  throat  of  the  Crocodile  to  destroyit,  is  entirely  fabulous. 
There  are  other  species. 

Rtzjena,  lUig. 

The  Surikates  have  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  Mangoustes,  even  to  the 
tints  and  transverse  streaks  of  the  hair,  but  are  distinguished  from  them  and 
from  all  the  Carnivora  of  which  we  have  hitherto  spoken,  by  having  only 
four  toes  to  each  foot.  They  also  are  higher  on  their  legs,  and  they  have 
not  the  small  molar  immediately  behind  the  canine  tooth. 

One  species  only  is  known,  a  native  of  Africa — Viv.  tetradactyla,  Gm.,  a 
little  less  than  the  Mangouste  of  India. 

Crossarchus,  Fred.  Cuv. 

The  muzzle,  teeth,  pouch,  and  walk  of  the  Surikates,  the  toes  of  the 
Mangoustes. 

One  species  only  is  known — Crossarchus  obscurus,  Fred.  Cuv.,  from  Sierra 
Leone,  of  the  size  of  the  Surikate;  greyish  brown;  cheeks  a  little  paler,  and 
a  hairy  tail. 

The  last  subdivision  of  the  Digitigrada  has  no  small  teeth  of  any 
kind  behind  the  large  molar  of  the  lower  jaw.  The  animals  con- 
tained in  it  are  the  most  cruel  and  sanguinary  of  the  class.  They 
form  two  genera. 

Htjena,  Storr. 
The  Hyenas  have  three  false  molars  above  and  four  below,  all  conical,  blunt 
and  singularly  large;  their  superior  carnivorous  tooth  has  a  small  tubercle 
within  and  in  front,  but  the  inferior  has  none,  presenting  only  two  stout 
trenchant  points;  with  these  powerful  arms  they  are  enabled  to  crush  the 
bones  of  the  largest  prey.  The  tongue  is  rough  and  each  foot  has  four  toes 
like  that  of  the  Surikate.  So  powerful  are  the  muscles  of  the  neck  and 
jaw,  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  wrest  any  thing  from  between  tlieir  teeth 
that  they  have  once  seized,  and,  among  the  Arabs,  their  name  is  the  sym- 
bol of  obstinacy.  It  sometimes  happens  that  an  anchylosis  of  the  cervical 
vertebrae  is  the  consequence  of  these  violent  efl'orts,  and  this  has  caused  it 
to  be  said  that  they  have  only  one  single  bone  in  the  neck.     They  are 


78  MAMMALIA. 

nocturnal  animals,  inhabiting  caves;  are  extremely  voracious,  and  feed 
chiefly  on  dead  bodies,  which  they  seek  for  even  in  the  grave.  A  thousand 
superstitious  traditions  are  connected  with  them.  Three  species  are  known, 
one  of  which  is  the 

H.  vulgaris,  Buff.  (The  Striped  Hyena.)  Grey;  blackish  or  brown 
stripes  crosswise;  a  mane  along  the  whole  of  the  nape  of  the  neck,  and  black, 
that  stands  erect  when  the  animal  is  angry.  It  is  found  from  India  to  Abys- 
sinia and  Senegal.     The  brown  and  spotted  Hyenas  are  the  two  others. 

Felis,  Lin. 

Of  all  the  Carnaria  the  Cats  are  the  most  completely  and  powerfully  armed. 
Their  short  and  round  muzzle,  short  jaws,  and  particularly  their  retractile 
nails,  which,  being  raised  perpendicularly,  and  hidden  between  the  toes, 
when  at  rest,  by  the  action  of  elastic  ligament,  lose  neither  point  nor  edge, 
render  them  most  formidable  animals,  tlie  larger  species  especially.  They 
have  two  false  molars  above,  and  two  below:  their  superior  carnivorous  tooth 
has  three  lobes,  and  a  blunted  heel  on  the  inner  side;  the  inferior,  two 
pointed  and  trenchant  lobes,  without  any  heel:  they  have  but  a  very  small 
tuberculous  tooth  above,  without  any  thing  to  correspond  to  it  below.  The 
species  of  this  genus  are  very  numerous  and  various  with  regard  to  size 
and  colour,  though  they  are  all  similar  with  respect  to  form.  We  can  only 
subdivide  them  by  referring  to  the  difference  of  size  and  the  length  of  the 
hair,  characters  of  but  little  importance. 

At  the  head  of  the  genus  we  find 

F.  leo,  L.  (The  Lion.)  Distinguished  by  its  uniform  tawn)'  colour,  the 
tuft  of  hair  at  the  end  of  the  tail,  and  the  flowing  mane  which  clothes  the 
head,  neck,  and  shoulders  of  the  male.  Of  all  beasts  of  prey,  this  is  the 
strongest  and  most  coui-ageous.  Formerly  scattered  through  the  three  parts 
of  the  old  world,  it  seems  at  present  to  be  confined  to  Africa  and  some 
of  the  neighbouring  parts  of  Asia.  The  head  of  the  Lion  is  more  square 
than  that  of  the  following  species. 

Tigers  are  large,  short  haired  species,  most  commonly  marked  with  vivid 
spots. 

F.  tigris,  Buff.  (The  Royal  Tiger.)  As  large  as  the  Lion,  but  the  body 
is  longer,  and  the  head  rounder;  of  a  lively  fawn  colour  above:  a  pure  white 
below,  irregularly  crossed  with  black  stripes;  the  most  cruel  of  all  quadru- 
peds, and  the  scourge  of  the  East  Indies.  Such  are  his  strength  and  the 
velocity  of  his  movements,  that  during  the  march  of  armies  he  has  been 
seen  to  seize  a  soldier,  while  on  horseback,  and  bear  him  to  the  depths  of 
the  forest,  without  aff'ording  a  possibility  of  rescue. 

F.  onga,  L.  (The  Jaguar.)  Nearly  the  size  of  the  Royal  Tiger,  and 
almost  as  dangerous;  a  bright  fawn  colour  above;  the  flank  longitudinally 
marked  with  four  rows  of  ocellated  spots,  that  is  with  rings  more  or  less 
complete,  having  a  black  point  in  the  middle;  white  beneath,  transversely 
striped  with  black.  Sometimes  individual  specimens  are  found  black,  whose 
rings,  of  a  deeper  hue,  are  only  perceptible  in  a  particular  light. 


CARNARIA.  79 

F.pardus,  L. ;  the  Pardalis  of  the  ancients.  (The  Panther.)  Fawn 
coloured  above;  white  beneath;  with  six  or  seven  rows  of  black  spots,  re- 
sembling roses,  that  is,  formed  by  the  assemblage  of  five  or  six  simple 
spots  on  each  flank;  the  tail  is  the  length  of  the  body,  minus  that  of  the 
head. 

F.  leopardus,  L.  (The  Leopard.)  From  Africa;  similar  to  the  Panther, 
but  has  ten  rows  of  smaller  spots. 

F.  discolor,  L. ;  Buff.  (The  Couguar  or  Puma.)  Red,  with  small  spots 
of  a  slightly  deeper  red  which  are  not  easily  perceived.  From  both  Ame- 
ricas, where  it  preys  on  Sheep,  Deer,  &c. 

Among  the  inferior  species,  we  should  distinguish  the  Lynxes,  which 
are  remarkable  for  the  pencils  of  hair  which  ornament  their  ears. 

Four  or  five  different  kinds  of  them  are  known  in  commerce.  The  most 
beautiful,  which  are  as  large  as  the  Wolf — F.  cervaria,  Temm.,  come  from 
Asia  by  the  way  of  Russia,  and  have  a  slightly  reddish-grey  fur,  finely  spot- 
ted with  black. 

Others  from  Canada  and  the  north  of  Sweden — F.  borealis,  Temm.,  have 
the  fur  very  much  tufted,  extending  even  under  the  feet;  of  an  ash-coloured 
grey,  and  with  scarcely  any  spots. 

We  find  also  in  North  America  the 

F.  rufa,  Giild.  (The  Bay  Lynx.)  A  reddish  fawn  or  greyish  colour, 
mottled  with  brown;  brown  waves  on  the  thighs;  tail  annulated  with  black 
or  brown;  rather  smaller  than  the  Lynx. 

F.  caracal,  L..  (The  Caracal.  J  Of  an  almost  uniform  vinous  red.  From 
Persia,  Turkey,  &c.     It  is  the  true  Lynx  of  the  ancients. 

The  inferior  species,  which  are  deprived  of  the  pencils  on  the  ears,  are 
more  or  less  similar  to  our  common  Cat;  such  is 

F.  pardalis,  L. ;  Buff.  (The  Ocelot.)  Rather  lower  on  its  legs  than 
most  of  the  others;  grey,  with  large  fawn-coloured  spots  bordered  with 
black,  forming  oblique  bands  on  the  flank.     From  Amei'ica. 

F.  catus,  Li.  (The  Domestic  Cat.)  This  animal  is  originally  from  the 
forests  of  Europe.  In  its  wild  state,  it  is  of  a  greyish  brown,  with  darker 
transverse  undulations;  below  pale;  the  insides  of  the  thighs  and  of  all  the 
feet,  yellowish;  three  bands  on  the  tail,  its  inferior  third  blackish.  In  a 
domestic  state  it  varies,  as  is  well  known,  in  colours,  in  the  length  and 
fineness  of  the  hair,  but  infinitely  less  so  than  the  Dog;  it  is  also  much  less 
submissive  and  affectionate.     The 

AMPHIBIA 
Will  form  the  third  and  last  of  the  small  tribes  into  which  we  di- 
vide the  Carnivora.  Their  feet  are  so  short  and  so  enveloped  in 
the  skin,  that  the  only  service  they  can  render  them  on  land,  is  to 
enable  them  to  crawl;  but  as  the  intervals  of  the  fingers  are  occu- 
pied by  membranes,  they  are  excellent  oars;  and  in  fact,  these  ani- 
mals pass  the  greater   portion  of  their  time  in  the   water;   never 


80  MAMMALIA. 

landing,  except  for  the  purpose  of  basking  in  the  sun,  and  suckling 
their  young.  Their  elongated  body;  their  very  movable  spine, 
which  is  provided  with  muscles  that  strongly  flex  it;  their  narrow 
pelvis;  their  short  hair,  that  adheres  closely  to  the  skin,  all  unite  to 
render  them  good  swimmers;  and  all  the  details  of  their  anatomy 
confirm  these  first  indicia. 

We  have  as  yet  distinguished  two  genera  only,  Phoca  and  Tri- 
chechus. 

Phoca,  Lin. 
Seals  have  sis  or  four  incisors  above,  four  or  two  below,  pointed  caninl  and 
grinders  to  the  number  of  twenty,  twenty-two,  or  twenty-four,  all  trench- 
ant or  conical,  and  without  any  tuberculous  part  whatever;  five  toes  to  all 
the  feet,  the  anterior  ones  regularly  decreasing  in  length  from  the  thumb 
to  the  little  toe,  while  in  the  hinder  feet  the  thumb  and  the  little  toe  are  the 
longest,  and  the  intermediate  ones  the  shortest.  The  fore-feet  are  envel- 
oped in  the  skin  of  the  body  as  far  as  the  tarsus,  the  hinder  ones  almost  to 
the  heel.  Between  the  latter  is  a  short  tail.  The  head  of  a  Seal  bears  a 
resemblance  to  that  of  a  Dog,  whose  intelligence  and  soft  expressive  look 
it  also  possesses.  It  is  easily  tamed,  and  soon  becomes  attached  to  its 
keeper,  or  those  who  feed  it.  The  tongue  is  smooth  and  sloped  at  the 
end,  the  stomach  simple,  cjecum  short,  and  the  intestinal  canal  long,  and 
tolerably  regular.  These  animals  live  on  fish;  always  eat  in  the  water,  and 
close  their  nostrils  when  they  dive  by  a  kind  of  valve.  They  remain  a 
long  time  under  water;  there  is  a  large  venous  sinus  in  the  liver,  which  must 
assist  them  in  diving  by  rendering  respiration  less  necessary  to  the  motion 
of  the  blood.     Their  blood  is  very  abundant  and  very  black. 

Phoca,  properly  so  called,  or  without  external  ears. 

The  true  Phocje  have  pointed  incisors;  all  the  toes  enjoy  a  certain  de- 
gree of  motion,  and  are  teiininated  by  pointed  nails  planted  on  the  edge 
of  the  membrane,  which  unites  them. 

They  are  subdivided,  from  the  number  of  their  incisors.  The  Caloce- 
PHAiA,  Fr.  Cuv.  have  six  above  and  four  below;  such  is  the 

Phoca  vitulina,  L.  (The  Common  Seal.)  From  three  to  five  feet  in 
length;  of  a  yellowish  grey,  more  or  less  shaded  and  spotted  with  brown, 
according  to  its  age;  sometimes  brownish,  with  small  yellow  spots.  When 
very  old  it  becomes  whitish.  Common  on  the  coast  of  Europe  in  great 
herds.  It  is  also  found  far  to  the  north;  we  are  even  assured  that  it  is  this 
species  which  inhabits  the  Caspian  sea,  and  tlie  great  fresh  water  lakes  of 
Russia  and  Siberia,  but  this  assertion  does  not  appear  to  be  founded  on 
an  exact  comparison.  In  fact,  the  European  seas  contain  several  Phocae, 
which  have  long  been  confounded,  some  of  which  are  perhaps  mere  varie- 
ties of  the  others. 


CARNARIA.  81 

Stenorhincus,  Fred.  Cuv. 

Four  Incisors  above,  and  four  below,  the  molars  deeply  notched  into  three 
points. 

One  species  only  is  known,  and  that  is  from  the  Austral  seas — Ph.  lep- 
tonix,  Blain.  Size  of  the  barbata;  greyish  above;  yellowish  beneath;  nails 
small. 

Pexagus,  Fred.  Cuv. 

Four  incisors  also,  above  and  below,  but  their  grinders  are  obtuse  cones, 
with  a  slightly  marked  heel  before  and  behind.  There  is  one  of  them  in 
the  Mediterranean,  y 

Ph.  monachus,  Gm.  (The  Monk. )  From  ten  to  twelve  feet  in  lemgth, 
of  a  blackish  brown,  with  a  white  belly.  It  is  particularly  found  among 
the  Grecian  and  Adriatic  Islands,  and  is,  most  probably,  the  species  best 
known  to  the  ancients. 

Stemmatopcs,  Fred.  Cuv. 

Four  superior  incisors,  and  two  inferior;  grinders  compressed,  slightly 
ti'ilobate,  supported  by  thick  roots.     Such  is  the 

Ph.  cristata,  Gm.  (The  Hooded  Seal.)  Seven  or  eight  feet  long;  a 
piece  of  loose  skin  on  the  head,  which  can  be  inflated  at  the  pleasure  of 
the  animal,  and  is  drawn  over  the  eyes  when  it  is  menaced,  at  which  times 
the  nostrils  also  are  inflated  like  bladders.     From  the  Arctic  ocean. 

Finally,  the  MACRonHiifus,  Fr.  Cuv.,  has  the  incisors  of  the  preceding, 
obtuse  conical  molars,  and  the  muzzle  resembling  a  short  movable  probos- 
cis or  snout.     The  largest  seal  known  is  of  this  subgenus;  the 

Ph.  leonina,  L.  (The  Elephant  Seal. )  From  twenty  to  twenty-five  feet 
in  length;  brown,  the  muzzle  of  the  male  terminated  by  a  wrinkled  snout, 
which  becomes  inflated  when  the  animal  is  angry.  It  is  common  in  the 
southern  latitudes  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  at  the  Terra  del-Fuego,  New  Zeal- 
and, Chili,  &c.  It  constitutes  an  important  object  of  the  fisheries,  on  ac- 
count of  the  oil  in  which  it  abounds.     The 

Otabies,  Peron,  Seals  with  external  ears. 
Are  worthy  of  being  formed  into  a  separate  genus;  because,  indepen- 
dently of  the  projecting  external  ears,  the  four  superior  middle  incisors  have 
a  double  cutting  edge,  a  circumstance  hitherto  unknown  in  any  animal;  the 
external  ones  are  simple  and  smaller,  and  the  four  inferior  bifurcated.  All 
the  molars  are  simply  conical,  and  the  toes  of  the  forefeet  almost  immova- 
ble; the  membrane  of  the  hind  feet  is  lengthened  out  into  a  slip  beyond 
each  toe;  all  the  nails  are  flat  and  slender. 

Ph.  jubata,  Gm. ;  Sea-Lion  of  Steller,  Pernetty,  &c.     From  fifteen  to 

twenty  feet,  and  more,  in  length;  fawn  coloured;  the  neck  of  the  male 

covered  with  hairs  that  are  more  frizzled  and  thickly  set  than  those  on  the 

rest  of  the  body.     It  might  be  said  to  be  found  in  all  the  Pacific  Ocean, 

L 


i^' 


82  MAMMALIA. 

were  it  not  that  those  from  the  straits  of  Magellan  seem  to  differ  from  such 
as  are  taken  at  the  Aleutian  islands. 

Tkichechus,  Lin.(l) 
The  3Iorse  resembles  the  Seal  in  its  limbs,  and  the  general  form  of  the  body; 
but  differs  widely  from  it  in  the  teeth  and  head.  There  are  no  incisors  nor 
canini  in  the  lower  jaw,  which  is  compressed  anteriorly  to  pass  between 
two  enormous  canini  or  tusks,  which  issue  from  the  upper  one,  and  which 
project  downwards,  being  sometimes  two  feet  long,  and  of  a  proportionable 
thickness.  The  enormous  size  of  the  alveoli,  requisite  for  holding  such 
tremendous  canini,  raises  up  the  whole  front  of  the  upper  jaw,  giving  it 
the  shape  of  a  huge  inflated  jowl,  the  nostrils  looking  upwards,  and  not 
terminating  the  muzzle.  The  molars  are  all  short,  obliquely  truncated 
cylinders;  there  are  four  of  them  on  each  side,  above  and  below,  but,  at  a 
particular  age,  two  of  the  upper  ones  fall  out.  Between  the  canini  are 
two  incisors,  similar  to  the  molars,  which  most  authors  have  not  recognised 
as  such,  although  they  are  implanted  in  the  intermaxillary  bone.  Between 
these  again,  in  the  young  animal,  are  two  more  small,  pointed  ones. 

The  stomach  and  intestines  of  the  Morse  are  very  similar  to  those  of  the 
Seal.  It  appears  that/wcus  constitutes  part  of  its  food,  along  with  animal 
matters.     One  species  only  is  as  yet  ascertained,  the 

Trich.  rosmarus,  L.  (The  Sea  Cow. )  It  inhabits  the  Arctic  seas,  sur- 
passes the  largest  Ox  in  size,  attains  the  length  of  twenty  feet,  and  is  cover- 
ed with  a  short  yellowish  hair.  It  is  sought  for  on  account  of  its  oil  and 
tusks;  the  ivory  of  which,  although  rough  grained,  is  employed  in  the  arts. 
The  skin  makes  excellent  coach  braces. 


ORDER  IV. 

MARSUPIALIA. 

So  many  are  the  singularities  in  the  economy  of  the  Marsupialia 
or  pouched  animals^  as  they  are  termed,  which  we  formerly  placed 
at  the  end  of  the  Carnaria  as  a  fourth  family  of  that  great  order, 
that  it  appears  to  us  they  should  form  a  separate  and  distinct  one, 
particularly  as  we  observe  in  them  a  kind  of  representation  of  three 
very  different  orders. 

The  first  of  all  their  peculiarities  is  the  premature  production  of 


(1)  Trichechus,  from  rg}^  (hair),  a  name  invented  by  Artedi  for  the  Sea 
Cow. 


MARSUPIALIA.  83 

their  young,  whose  state  of  development  at  birth  is  extremely  small. 
Incapable  of  motion,  and  hardly  exhibiting  the  germs  of  limbs  and 
other  external  organs,  these  diminutive  beings  attach  themselves  to 
the  mammce  of  the  mother,  and  remain  fixed  there  until  they  have  ac- 
quired a  degree  of  development  similar  to  that  in  which  other  animals 
are  born.  The  skin  of  the  abdomen  is  almost  always  so  arranged 
about  the  mammae  as  to  form  a  pouch  in  which  these  imperfect  little 
animals  are  preserved  as  in  a  second  uterus;  and  to  which,  long 
after  they  can  walk,  they  always  fly  for  shelter  at  the  approach  of 
danger.  Two  particular  bones  attached  to  the  pubis,  and  inter- 
posed between  the  muscles  of  the  abdomen,  support  the  pouch. 
These  bones  are  also  found  in  the  male,  and  even  in  those  species 
in  which  the  fold  that  forms  the  pouch  is  scarcely  visible. 

Another  peculiarity  of  the  Marsupialia  is,  that  notwithstanding  a 
general  resemblance  of  the  species  to  each  other,  so  striking,  that  for 
a  long  time  they  were  considered  as  one  genus,  they  differ  so  much 
in  the  teeth,  the  organs  of  digestion  and  the  feet,  that  if  we  rigor- 
ously adhered  to  these  characters,  we  should  be  compelled  to  sepa- 
rate them  into  several  orders.  They  carry  us  by  insensible  grada- 
tions from  the  Carnaria  to  the  Rodentia,  and  there  are  even  some 
animals  which  have  the  pelvis  furnished  with  similar  bones;  but 
which,  from  the  want  of  incisors  or  of  all  kinds  of  teeth,  have  been 
approximated  to  the  Edentata,  where,  in  fact,  we  shall  leave  them, 
under  the  name  of  Monotremata. 

The  first  subdivision  of  the  Marsupialia  is  marked  by  long  canini, 
and  small  incisors  in  both  jaws,  back  molars  bristled  with  points, 
and  all  the  characters  in  general  of  the  insectivorous  Carnaria;  the 
animals  that  compose  it  are  also  perfectly  saiilar  to  the  latter  in 
their  regimen. 

DiDELPHis,  Lin. 
The  Opossums,  which  of  all  the  Marsupialia  have  been  the  longest  known, 
form  a  genus  peculiar  to  America.  They  have  ten  incisors  above,  the 
middle  ones  being  rather  the  longest,  and  eght  below;  three  anterior 
compressed  grinders  and  four  posterior  bristlec  grinders,  the  superior  ones 
triangular,  and  the  inferior  oblong,  which,  wi-'h  the  four  canini,  make  in  all 
fifty  teeth,  the  greatest  number  hitherto  obierved  in  Quadrupeds.  Their 
tongue  is  papillated,  and  their  tail  prehei«ile  and  partly  naked.  Their 
hinder  thumb  is  long  and  very  opposable  to  the  other  four  toes,  from  which 
circumstance  these  animals  are  sometimes  styled  Pedimana,-  they  have  no 
nail.     Their  extremely  wide  mouth,  and  great  naked  ears  give  them  a 


84  MAMMALIA. 

very  peculiar  physiognomy.  They  are  fetid  and  nocturnal  animals,  whose 
gait  is  slow;  they  remain  on  trees,  and  there  pursue  Birds,  Insects,  &c., 
though  not  despising  fruit. 

The  females  of  certain  species  have  a  deep  pouch  in  which  are  the 
mammae,  and  in  which  they  can  enclose  their  young. 

Did.  virginiana,  Penn.  (The  Opossum. )  Almost  the  size  of  a  Cat;  fur, 
a  mixture  of  black  and  white;  ears,  one  side  black,  and  the  other  white; 
head  nearly  all  white.  Inhabits  all  America;  steals  at  night  into  villages; 
attacks  fowls,  eats  their  eggs,  &c.  The  young  ones  at  birth,  sometimes 
sixteen  in  number,  weigh  only  a  grain  each.  Although  blind  and  nearly 
shapeless,  they  find  the  mammae  by  instinct,  and  adhere  to  them  until  they 
have  attained  the  size  of  a  Mouse,  which  happens  about  the  fiftieth  day,  at 
which  epoch  they  open  their  eyes.  They  continue  to  return  to  the  pouch 
till  they  are  as  large  as  Rats. 

Other  species  possess  no  pouch,  having  a  mere  vestige  of  it  in  a  fold  of 
the  skin  on  each  side  of  the  abdomen.  They  usually  carry  their  young  on 
their  backs,  the  tails  of  the  latter  being  entwined  around  that  of  the 
mother. 

Did.  nudicauda,  Geoff.  (The  Bare-tailed  Opossum.)  Fawn-coloured; 
tail  very  long,  and  naked  even  at  its  base;  two  whitish  spots  over  each  eye, 
one  beneath. 

Finally,  there  is  one  known  with  palmated  feet,  which  must  be  aquatic; 
it  is  not  ascertained  whether  it  has  a  pouch  or  not — it  is  the 

Chibokectes,  Illig.(l) 

Did.  palmata,  Geoff.  Brown  above,  with  three  transverse  grey  bands, 
interrupted  in  the  middle,  and  white  below;  larger  than  a  Norway  Rat. 

All  the  other  Marsupialia  inhabit  eastern  countries.  New  Holland  parti- 
cularly, a  land,  whose  animal  population  seems  chiefly  to  belong  to  this 
family. 

Thxiacinus,  Temm.(2) 

The  Thylacini  are  tlie  largest  of  this  first  division.  They  are  distin- 
guished from  the  Opossums  by  the  hind  feet  having  no  thumb ;  a  hairy, 
non-prehensile  tail,  and  two  incisors  less  in  each  jaw;  their  molai's  are  of 
the  same  number.  They  consequently  have  forty-six  teeth;  but  the  ex- 
ternal edge  of  the  three  large  ones  is  projecting  and  trenchant,  almost 
like  the  carnivorous  tooth  of  a  Dog;  their  ears  are  hairy,  and  of  a  medium 
size.     One  species  only  is  known,  the 

Did.  cynocepJiala,  Harris.  Size  that  of  a  Wolf,  but  stands  lower;  gfrey; 
transverse  black  stripes  on  the  crupper.  It  is  very  carnivorous,  and  pur- 
fiues  all  small  quadi'upeds.     Ftom  Van  Dieman's  Land. 


(1)  Chinoredes,  i.  e.  swimming  with  hands. 
(3)  Thylacinus,  from  flu^anoc  purse. 


MARSUPIALIA.  85 

Phabcogaii:,  Temm. 

The  same  number  of  teeth  as  the  Thykcini,  but  the  middle  incisors  are 
longer  than  the  others,  and  the  back  molars  more  bristled,  circumstances 
which  approximate  them  more  closely  to  the  Sarigues.  They  are  also 
allied  to  them  by  their  small  size;  their  tail  however  is  not  prehensile; 
their  hind  thumb,  though  very  short,  is  still  very  apparent. 

Did.  penicillata,  Shaw.  Ash  coloured;  tail  furnished  with  long  black 
hairs;  size  that  of  the  Norway  Rat;  lives  on  the  trees  in  New  Holland,  and 
pursues  insects. 

Dasyurus,  Geofr.(l) 

Two  incisors  and  four  grinders  in  each  jaw  less  than  the  Opossums,  so  that 
they  have  only  forty-two  teeth;  their  tail,  every  where  covered  with  long 
hairs,  is  not  prehensile.  The  thumb  of  the  hind  foot  is  reduced  to  a  tu- 
bercle, or  has  even  totally  disappeared.  They  are  from  New  Holland, 
where  they  feed  on  Insects  and  dead  bodies;  they  penetrate  into  houses, 
where  their  voracity  is  very  inconvenient.  Their  mouth  is  not  so  wide, 
their  muzzle  not  so  pointed  as  those  of  the  Opossums;  their  hairy  ears 
are  also  shorter.     They  do  not  climb  trees. 

Did.  ursina,  Harr.  (The  Ursine  Opossum.)  Long  rough  black  hairs, 
with  some  irregularly  placed  white  spots;  the  tail  half  as  long  as  the  body, 
almost  naked  underneath.  Inhabits  the  north  of  Van  Dieman's  Land,  and 
is  nearly  the  size  of  the  Badger. 

Pebameies,  Geoff.  (2) — Thtiacis,  lUig. 

The  thumb  of  the  hind  foot  short,  like  the  first  Dasyuri,  and  tlie  two 
following  toes  united  by  the  membrane  as  far  the  nails;  the  thumb  and  the 
little  toe  of  their  fore  feet  are  simple  tubercles,  so  that  there  seem  to  be 
but  three  toes.  They  have  ten  incisors  above,  the  external  ones  separate 
and  pointed,  and  only  six  below;  but  their  molars  are  the  same  as  in  the 
Opossums,  so  that  they  have  forty-eight  teeth.  Their  tail  is  hairy,  and  not 
prehensile.  The  great  claws  of  their  fore  feet  announce  their  habit  of 
digging  in  the  earth;  and  the  tolerable  length  of  their  hind  ones,  a  swift- 
ness of  gait. 

P.  nasuius,  Geoff.  The  muzzle  much  elongated;  ears  pointed;  fur  a 
greyish  brown.     At  the  first  glance  it  resembles  a  Tenrec. 

The  species  belonging  to  the  second  subdivision  of  the  Marsu- 
pialia  have  two  broad  and  long  incisors  in  the  lower  jaw  with  pointed 
and  trenchant  edges  sloping  forwards,  and  six  corresponding  ones  in 
the  upper  jaw.  Their  superior  canini  are  also  long  and  pointed, 
but  all  their  inferior  ones  consist  of  teeth  so  small  that  they  are  fre- 


(1)  Dasyurus,  hairy  tail.  (2)  Pera,  purse,  Meles,  badger. 


86  MAMMALIA. 

quently  hidden  by  the  gum;  they  are  sometimes  altogether  wanting 
in  the  lower  jaw  of  the  last  subgenus. 

Their  regimen  is  chiefly  frugivorous.  The  thumb  is  very  large 
in  all  of  them,  and  so  widely  separated  from  the  toes  that  it  seems 
to  slant  backwards  almost  like  that  of  the  Birds.  It  has  no  nail,  and 
the  two  following  toes  are  united  by  the  skin  as  far  as  the  last  pha- 
lanx. It  is  from  this  circumstance  that  these  animals  have  received 
the  name  of  Phalangers. 

Phalangista. 

Phaiangista,  Cuv. — Balantia,  Illlg.{l) 

The  true  Phalangers  have  not  the  skin  of  the  flank  extended;  four  back 
molars  in  each  jaw,  with  four  points  in  two  rows;  in  front  a  large  one,  co- 
nical and  compressed,  and  between  it  and  the  superior  canine  two  small  and 
pointed  ones,  to  which  correspond  the  three  very  small  lower  ones,  of 
which  we  have  just  spoken.     Their  tail  is  always  prehensile. 

The  tail  in  some  of  them  is  in  a  great  measure  scaly.  They  live  on  trees 
in  the  Moluccas,  where  they  feed  on  Insects  and  fruit.  At  the  sight  of  a 
Man  they  suspend  themselves  by  their  tail;  and  if  he  gaze  at  them  steadily 
for  some  time,  they  fall  through  lassitude.  They  diffuse  a  very  unpleasant 
odour,  notwithstanding  which  their  flesh  is  eaten. 

There  are  several  of  them  known,  of  various  sizes  and  colours,  all  of 
which  are  embraced  under  the  Didelphis  orientalis  of  Linnseus. 

Ph.  ursina,  T.  (The  Ursine  Phalanger.)  Nearly  the  size  of  the  Civet, 
fur  close,  and  of  a  blackish  brown;  the  young  ones  a  fawn-coloured  brown. 
From  the  woods  of  the  island  of  Macassar. 

In  others,  which  have  hitherto  been  found  in  New  Holland  only,  the  tail 
is  hairy  to  the  tip. 

Ph.  vulpina.  (The  Fox-like  Phalanger.)  Size  of  a  stout  Cat;  greyish- 
brown,  paler  beneath;  tail  nearly  all  black. 

PETAtmtrs,  Shaw. — Phamngista,  Illig. 

The  Plying  Phalangers  have  the  skin  of  the  flanks  more  or  less  extended 
between  the  legs,  like  the  Flying  Squirrels  among  the  Rodentia,  which 
enables  them  to  sustain  themselves  momentarily  in  the  ail',  and  make  greater 
leaps.     They  also  are  only  found  in  New  Holland. 

Some  of  the  species  have  inferior  canini,  but  they  are  very  small.  Their 
superior  canini  and  theii-  three  first  molars,  above  and  below,  are  very 
pointed;  each  of  their  back  molars  has  four  points. 

Ph.  pygmsea.  (The  Flying  Dwarf  Phalanger.)  Of  the  colour  and 
nearly  the  size  of  a  Mouse;  the  hairs  of  the  tail  regularly  arranged  on  its 
two  sides  like  the  web  of  a  quill. 


(1)  Balantia,  from  ^ctxavriov  purse  or  pouch. 


MARSUPIALIA.  87 

Other  species  have  no  inferior  canini,  while  the  superior  ones  are  very 
small.  Their  four  back  molars  present  four  points,  but  tliey  are  slightly 
curved  into  a  crescent,  which  is  very  nearly  tlie  form  of  those  of  the 
Ruminantia.  In  front,  there  are  two  above,  and  one  below,  less  compli- 
cated. By  this  structure  they  are  rendered  still  more  frugivorous  than  all 
tlie  preceding  species. 

Ph.  petaurus.  (The  Great  Flying  Phalanger.)  Resembles  the  Taguan 
and  the  Galeopithecus  in  size;  its  fur  is  soft  and  close;  its  tail  long  and 
flattened;  brownish-black  above,  white  beneath.  They  are  of  various 
shades  of  brown;  some  are  variegated,  and  others  perfectly  white. 

Our  third  subdivision  has  the  incisors  and  superior  canini  of  the 
second.  The  two  toes  of  the  hind  feet  are  also  similarly  united; 
but  the  posterior  thumbs  and  inferior  canini  are  wanting.  It  con- 
tains but  a  single  genus. 

Hypsiprymnus,  Illig.(l) 
The  Potoroos  are  the  last  animals  of  this  family  which  retain  any  trait  of  the 
general  characters  of  the  Carnaria.  Their  teeth  are  nearly  the  same  as 
those  of  the  Phalangers,  and  they  still  have  pointed  canini  above.  What 
particularly  distinguishes  these  animals  is  their  hind  legs,  which  are  much 
larger  in  proportion  than  the  fore  ones,  that  have  no  thumbs,  and  the  two 
first  toes  united  as  far  as  the  nail;  so  that,  at  a  first  glance,  it  seems  as 
though  there  were  but  three  toes,  the  middle  one  having  two  nails.  They 
frequently  walk  upon  two  feet,  at  which  times  they  employ  their  long  and 
strong  tail  to  support  themselves.  They  have  then  the  form  and  habits  of 
the  Kanguroos,  from  which  they  only  differ  in  their  superior  canine  tooth. 
They  are  frugivorous. 

Hyps,  minor.  (The  Kanguroo  Rat. )  Sizeof  a  small  Rabbit;  of  a  mouse- 
grey.  From  New  Holland,  where  it  is  called  Potoroo.  It  is  the  only  spe- 
cies known. 

The  fourth  subdivision  only  differs  from  the  third  in  the  absence 
of  all  canini  whatsoever,  it  is  the 

Macropus,  Shaw. — Halmaturus,  Illig.(2) 

The  Kanguroos  have  all  the  characters  we  have  assigned  to  the  preceding 
genus,  except  that  the  superior  canine  is  wanting,  and  that  their  middle 
incisors  do  not  project  beyond  the  others.  The  inequality  of  their  legs  is 
still  greater,  so  that  on  all  fours  they  can  only  walk  slowly  and  with  diffi- 
culty; they  make  vigorous  leaps  however  with  their  hind  feet,  the  great 


(1)  t-^i'TTgufjivog;  i.  e.  raised  behind. 

(2)  Halmaturus,  tail  fit  for  leaping. 


88  MAMMALIA. 

middle  nail  of  which  (almost  in  the  shape  of  a  hoof)  also  serves  them  fot 
purposes  of  defence;  for,  by  supporting  themselves  on  one  foot  and  their 
enormous  tail,  they  can  inflict  a  severe  blow  with  that  which  is  at  liberty. 
They  are  very  gentle  herbivorous  animals,  their  grinders  presenting  mere 
transverse  ridges. 

M.  major,  Shaw.  (The  Gigantic  Kanguroo.)  Sometimes  six  feet  in 
height.  It  is  the  largest  of  the  New  Holland  animals;  was  discovered  by 
Cook  in  1779,  and  is  now  bred  in  Europe.  Its  flesh  is  said  to  resemble 
venison.  The  young  ones,  which  at  birth  are  only  an  inch  long,  remain  in 
the  maternal  pouch  even  when  they  are  old  enough  to  graze,  which  they 
effect  by  stretching  out  their  necks  from  their  domicile,  while  the  mother 
herself  is  feeding.  These  animals  live  in  troops,  conducted  by  the  old 
males.  They  make  enormous  leaps.  It  appears  that  we  have  hitherto  con- 
founded under  this  name  several  species  of  New  Holland  and  its  neighbour- 
ing countries,  whose  fur,  more  or  less  grey,  only  varies  by  a  trifling  differ- 
ence of  shade. 

The  fifth  subdivision  has  two  longincisors  in  the  lower  jaw  but  no 
caninij  in  the  upper,  two  long  incisors  in  front,  a  few  small  ones 
on  the  sides,  and  two  small  canines.     It  comprehends  but  one  genus. 

Koala,  Cuv. 
The  Koalae  have  a  short,  stout  body;  short  legs,  and  no  tail.  The  toes  of 
their  forefeet,  five  in  number,  when  about  to  seize  any  object,  separate  into 
two  groups;  the  thumb  and  index  on  one  side,  and  the  remaining  three  on 
the  other.  The  thumb  is  wanting  on  the  hind  foot;  the  two  first  toes  of 
which  are  united  like  those  of  the  Phalangers  and  the  Kanguroos.  One 
species  only  is  known: 

K.  cinerea.  (The  Koala.)  Ash  coloured;  passes  one  part  of  its  life  in 
trees,  and  the  other  in  burrows  which  it  excavates  at  their  foot.  The 
mother  carries  her  young  one  for  a  long  time  on  her  back. 

Finally,  our  sixth  division  of  the  Marsupialia,  or  the 

Phascolomys,  Geofr.(l) 
Consists  of  Animals  which  are  true  Rodentia  in  the  teeth  and  intestines, 
their  only  relation  to  the  Carnaria  consisting  in  the  articulation  of  their 
lower  jaw;  and  in  a  rigorously  exact  system,  it  would  be  necessary  to  class 
them  with  the  Rodentia.  We  should  even  have  placed  them  there,  had 
we  not  been  led  to  them  by  a  regular  uninterrupted  series  from  the  Oposs- 
ums to  the  Phalangers,  from  the  latter  to  the  Kanguroos,  and  from  the  Kan- 
guroos to  the  Phascolomys. 


(1)  Phascolomys,  a  pouched  rat,  from  <f>«cr;cai^ov  and^uc. 


MARSUPIALIA.  89 

They  are  sluggish  animals,  with  large  flat  heads,  and  bodies  that  look  as 
if  they  had  been  crushed.  They  are  without  a  tail;  have  five  nails  on  each 
of  the  fore  feet,  and  four,  with  a  small  tubercle,  in  place  of  a  thumb,  on  each 
of  the  hind  ones,  all  very  long  and  fit  for  digging.  Their  gait  is  excess- 
ively slow.  They  have  two  long  incisors  in  each  jaw,  almost  similar  to 
those  of  the  Rodentia;  and  each  of  their  grinders  has  two  transverse  ridges. 

They  feed  on  grass.     One  species  only  is  known,  the 

Phas.  ursinus.  (The  Wombat.)  Size  of  a  badger;  fur  abundant,  of  a 
more  or  less  yellowish  brown.  It  is  found  in  King's  Island  to  the  south  of 
New  Holland,  where  it  lives  in  its  burrow.     Its  flesh  is  excellent. 


ORDER  V. 
RODENTIA. 

We  have  just  seen,  in  the  Phalangers,  canini  so  very  small,  that 
we  cannot  consider  them  as  such.  The  nutriment  of  these  animals, 
accordingly,  is  chiefly  derived  from  the  vegetable  kingdom.  Their 
intestines  are  longj  and  the  Kanguroos,  which  have  no  canini  what- 
ever, subsist  upon  vegetables  only.  The  Phascolomys  might  stand 
first  in  that  series  of  animals  of  which  we  are  about  to  speak,  and 
which  have  a  system  of  mastication  still  less  complete. 

Two  large  incisors  in  each  jaw,  separated  frona  the  molars  by  an 
empty  space,  cannot  seize  a  living  prey  nor  tear  flesh;  they  cannot 
even  cut  the  food,  but  they  serve  to  file,  and  by  continued  labour 
to  reduce,  it  into  separate  molecules,  in  a  word  to  gnaw  it;  hence 
the  term  Rodentia  or  Gnawers,  which  is  applied  to  animals  of  this 
order.  It  is  thus  that  they  successfully  attack  the  hardest  substances, 
frequently  feeding  on  wood  and  the  bark  of  trees.  The  more  easily 
to  accomplish  this  object,  the  incisors  have  no  thick  enamel  except 
in  front,  so  that  their  posterior  edges  wearing  away  faster  than  the 
anterior,  they  are  always  naturally  sloped.  Their  prismatic  form 
causes  them  to  grow  from  the  root  as  fast  as  they  wear  away  at  the 
edge;  and  this  tendency  to  increase  in  length  is  so  powerful,  that  if 
one  of  them  be  lost  or  broken,  its  antagonist  in  the  other  jaw  having 
nothing  to  oppose  or  comminute,  becomes  developed  to  a  most 
monstrous  extent.  The  lower  jaw  is  articulated  by  a  longitudinal 
condyle,  in  such  a  way  as  to  allow  of  no  horizontal  motion,  except 
from  back  to  front,  and  vice  versa,  as  is  requisite  for  the  action  of 
M 


90  MAMMALIA. 

gnawing.  The  molars  also  have  flat  crowns,  whose  enamelled 
eminences  are  always  transverse,  so  as  to  be  in  opposition  to  the 
horizontal  motion  of  the  jaw,  and  to  increase  the  power  of  tritu- 
ration. 

The  genera  in  which  these  eminences  are  simple  lines,  and  the 
crown  is  very  flat,  are  more  exclusively  frugivorous;  those  in  which 
the  eminences  of  the  teeth  are  divided  into  blunt  tubercles  are  om- 
nivorous; while  the  small  number  of  such  as  have  no  points  more 
readily  attack  other  animals,  and  approximate  somewhat  to  the 
Carnaria. 

The  form  of  the  body  in  the  Rodentia  is  generally  such,  that  the 
hinder  parts  of  it  exceed  those  of  the  front;  so  that  they  rather  leap 
than  walk.  In  some  of  them  this  disproportion  is  even  as  excessive 
as  it  is  in  the  Kanguroos. 

The  inferiority  of  these  animals  is  visible  in  most  of  the  details  of 
their  organization.  Those  genera  however  which  possess  stronger 
clavicles  have  a  certain  degree  of  dexterity,  and  use  their  fore  feet 
to  convey  their  food  to  the  mouth. 

Some  of  them  even  climb  with  facility:  such  is  the 

SciuRus,  Lin. 
Squirrels  are  distinguished  by  their  strongly  compressed  inferior  incisors, 
and  by  their  long  tail  furnished  with  hairs.  They  have  four  toes  before, 
and  five  behind.  The  thumb  of  the  fore  foot  is  sometimes  marked  by  a  tu- 
bercle. They  have  in  all  four  grinders,  variously  tuberculated,  and  a  very 
small  additional  one  above  in  front,  that  very  soon  fulls.  The  head  is  large 
and  the  eyes  projecting  and  lively.  They  are  light  and  active  animals, 
living  on  trees,  and  feeding  on  fruits. 

ScitTBUS,  CuVf 

In  the  Squirrel,  properly  so  called,  the  hjurs  of  the  tail  are  aiTanged  on 
the  sides,  so  as  to  resemble  a  feather.  There  are  a  great  many  species  in 
the  two  continents. 

Sc  vulgaris.  Buff.  (The  Common  Squirrel.)  The  back  of  a  lively  red; 
belly  white;  ears  terminated  by  a  tuft  of  hair.  Those  of  the  north,  in  win- 
ter, become  of  a  beautiful  bluish  ash  colour,  producing  the  fur  called  min- 
ever when  taken  only  from  the  back,  and  vair  (by  the  French)  when  it 
consists  of  the  whole  skin. 

The  American  species  have  no  pencils  to  their  ears.     Such  are 

Sc.  cinereus,  L.  (The  Grey  Squirrel  of  Carolina.)  Larger  than  that  of 
Europe;  ash  coloured,  with  a  white  abdomen. 

It  is  probable  that  we  shall  have  to  separate  from  the  Squirrels  certain 


RODENTIA.  91 

species  which  have  cheek-pouches  like  the  Hamsters,  and  pass  their  lives 

in  subterraneous  holes,  the  Tamia  of  llViger.     For  instance  the 

Sc.  sfriafus,  L.  (The  Ground  Squirrel.)  Which  is  found  throughout 
all  the  north  of  Asia  and  America,  particularly  in  the  pine  forests.  The 
tail  is  more  scantily  supplied  with  hairs  tlian  tluit  of  the  European  Squirrel; 
the  ears  smooth,  and  skin  brown,  with  five  black  stripes  and  two  white 
ones. 

We  ought  also,  most  probabh^,  to  distinguish  the  Guerlinguets,  a  species 
with  a  long,  and  almost  round  tail. 

They  are  found  in  both  continents. 

The  following  have  been  separated  already. 

Pteromts.(I) 

Or  the  Flying  Squirrels,  to  which  the  skin  of  the  flank,  extending  be- 
tween the  fore  and  hind  legs,  imparts  the  faculty  of  supporting  themselves 
for  a  moment  in  the  air,  and  of  making  very  great  leaps.  There  are  long 
bony  appendages  to  their  feet,  which  support  a  part  of  this  lateral  mem- 
brane. 

There  is  a  species  in  North  America. 

Sc.  voluccella,  L.  (The  American  Flying  Squirrel.)  Reddish-grey  above; 
white  beneath;  size  less  than  that  of  the  preceding;  tail  three-fourths  as 
long  as  the  body.     It  lives  in  troops  in  the  prairies  of  North  America. 

M.  GeofFroy  has  very  properly  separated  from  this  genus  the 

Cheiho»ts.(2) 

Or  the  Aye-Ayes,  whose  inferior  incisors,  much  more  compressed,  and 
above  all,  more  extended  from  front  to  back,  resemble  ploughshares. 
Each  foot  has  five  toes,  of  which  four  of  the  anterior  are  excessively  elon- 
gated, the  medius  being  moi'C  slender  than  the  others;  in  the  hind  feet  the 
thumb  is  opposable  to  the  other  toes;  so  that  they  are  in  this  respect  among 
the  Rodentia,  what  the  Opossums  are  among  the  Carnaria.  The  structure 
of  their  head  is  otherwise  very  different  from  that  of  the  other  Rodentia, 
and  is  related  to  the  Quadrumana  in  more  points  than  one. 

There  is  only  one  species  of  the  Aye-Aye  known.  It  was  discovered  at 
Madagascar  by  Sonnerat.  It  is  the  Cheir.  madagascariensis.  (The  Aye- 
Aye.)  Size  of  a  Hare,  of  a  brown  colour,  mixed  with  yellow;  tail  long  and 
thick,  with  stout  black  bristles;  ears  large  and  naked.  It  is  a  nocturnal 
animal,  to  which  motion  seems  painful;  it  burrows  under  ground,  and  uses 
its  slender  toe  to  convey  food  to  its  mouth. 

Linnaeus  and  Pallas  united  in  one  single  group,  under  the  name  of 

Mus,  Lin. 
All  the  Rodentia  furnished  with  clavicles,  which  they  could  not  distinguish 


(1)  Pteromys,  Winged  Rat. 

(2)  Cheiromys,  a  rat  with  hands. 


92  MAMMALIA. 

by  some  very  sensible  external  character,  such  as  the  tail  of  the  Squirrel  or 
that  of  the  Beaver,  from  which  resulted  the  utter  impossibility  of  assigning 
to  them  any  common  character;  the  greater  number  had  merely  pointed 
lower  incisors,  but  even  this  was  subject  to  exceptions. 

GmeUn  has  already  separated  from  them  the  Marmots,  Dormice,  and  the 
Jei'boas;  but  we  carry  tlieir  subdivisions  much  further,  from  considerations 
founded  on  the  form  of  their  grinders. 

Arctomts,  Gm.(l) 

The  Marmots,  it  is  true,  have  the  inferior  incisors  pointed  like  those  of 
the  greater  number  of  animals  comprehended  in  the  great  genus  Mus;  but 
their  grinders,  like  those  of  the  Squirrel,  amount  to  five  on  each  side  above 
and  four  below,  all  bristled  with  points;  accordingly,  some  species  are  in- 
clined to  eat  flesh  and  feed  upon  insects,  as  well  as  grass.  There  are  four  toes 
and  a  tubercle  in  place  of  a  thumb  to  the  fore  feet,  and  five  toes  to  the 
hind  ones.  In  other  respects  these  animals  are  nearly  tlie  direct  reverse 
of  the  Squirrels,  being  heavy,  having  short  legs,  a  middle  sized  or  short 
hairy  tall,  and  a  large  flat  head,  passing  the  winter  in  a  state  of  torpor, 
and  shut  up  in  deep  holes,  the  entrance  of  which  they  close  with  a  heap  of 
grass.  They  live  in  societies,  and  are  easily  tamed.  Two  species  are 
known  in  the  eastern  continent.     One  is 

Ard.  alpinus.  (The  Alpine  Marmot.)  Large  as  a  Hare;  tail  short;  fur 
yellowish  grey,  with  ash  coloured  tints  about  the  head.  It  lives  in  high 
mountains,  immediately  below  the  region  of  perpetual  snow. 

America  also  produces  some  species. 

J.rd.  monax.  Buff".  (The  Maryland  Marmot.)  Grey;  tail  blackish,  as 
well  as  the  top  of  the  head. 

Jird.  empetra,  Pall.    Less  than  the  preceding;  grey;  red  beneath. 

Spehmophiius,  Fred.  Cuv. 

We  apply  this  name  to  those  Marmots  that  have  cheek  pouches.  The 
superior  lightness  of  their  structure  has  caused  them  to  be  called  Ground 
Squirrels.     Eastern  Europe  produces  one  species: 

A.  citillus.  (The  Souslik  or  Zizel. )  A  pretty  little  animal,  of  a  greyish 
brown,  watered  or  mottled  with  white,  the  spots  very  small,  which  is 
found  from  Bohemia  to  Siberia.  It  has  a  peculiar  fondness  for  flesh,  and 
does  not  spare  even  its  own  species. 

North  America  has  several  species  of  them,  one  of  which  is  remarkable 
by  the  thirteen  fawn  coloured  stripes  which  extend  along  the  back  on  a 
tlackish  ground.  It  is  the  Thirteen  striped  Souslik^  Arct.  13-lineatus,  Harl.; 
or  Sciurus  13-lineatus,  Mitchell;  or  Arct.  Hoodii,  Sabine. 

There  is  one  of  the  Rodentla  which  it  appears  we  must  approximate  to 
the  Marmots,  that  is  remarkable  for  living  in  large  troops  in  immense  bur- 


(1)  Jbrctomys,  Bear-Rat. 


RODENTIA.  93 

rows,  which  have  even  been  styled  villag-es.  It  is  called  the  Prairie  Bog  or 
Barking  Squirrel,  the  latter  appellation  arising'  from  its  voice,  which  resem- 
bles the  bark,  of  a  small  Dog'.  It  is  the  Ard.  ludovicianus  of  Say,  Jour,  to 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  I,  451. 

Mtoxus,  Gm.(l) 

The  Dormice  have  pointed  lower  incisors,  and  four  grinders,  the  crown 
of  each  of  which  is  divided  by  enamelled  lines. 

They  are  pretty  little  animals,  with  soft  fur,  a  hairy  and  even  tufted  tail 
and  a  lively  eye,  which  live  on  trees  like  Squirrels,  and  feed  on  fruit.  They 
become  torpid  in  winter  like  the  Marmots,  and  pass  through  it  in  the  most 
profound  lethargy. 

JJf.  glis,  L.  (The  Fat  Dormouse.)  Size  of  a  Rat;  ashy  grey-brown 
above,  whitish  underneath;  of  a  deeper  brown  around  the  eyes;  tail  very 
hairy  the  whole  of  its  length,  and  disposed  somewhat  like  that  of  a  Squir- 
rel, and  frequently  a  little  forked  at  the  extremity.  It  inhabits  the  south 
of  Europe,  and  nestles  in  the  hollows  of  trees  and  fissures  of  rocks.  It 
sometimes  attacks  small  birds.  This  is  probably  the  Rat,  fattened  by  the 
ancients,  among'  whom  it  was  considered  a  delicacy  of  the  very  highest 
description. 

We  should  place  near  the  Dormice,  the 

EcHiMYS,  Geoff. (2) 

Four  grinders  also,  but  formed  in  a  peculiar  way;  the  upper  ones  con- 
sisting of  two  blades,  bent  into  the  shape  of  a  V,  and  the  under  ones  of  one 
blade  only  that  is  bent,  and  of  another  that  is  simple.  The  fur  of  several 
species  is  harsh  and  intermixed  with  flattened  spines  or  prickles,  like 
sword  blades.     From  America.     One  of  them  is, 

Eck.  cArjrsuros,  Schreb.  (The  Golden-tailed  Echirays.)  More  than  twice 
the  size  of  the  Brown  Rat;  it  is  a  beautiful  animal,  of  achesnutbrown  colour; 
white  belly;  an  elongated  crest  of  hairs,  and  a  white  longitudinal  band  on 
the  head;  the  tail  is  long  and  black;  the  posterior  half  yellow.  From 
Guiana. 

Others,  again,  have  merely  the  ordinary  kind  of  hair,  more  or  less  rough . 
The  most  remarkable  is  the 

Ech.  dadylicus,  Geoff.  (The  Long-toed  Echimys. )  "Which  is  still  larger 
than  the  Chrysuros,  and  has  the  two  middle  toes  of  the  fore  feet  double  the 
length  of  the  lateral  ones.  Its  scaly  tail  is  longer  than  the  body;  its  fur  is  a 
yellowish  grey,  and  the  hairs  on  its  nose  form  a  crest  directed  in  front. 

Htdhomts,  Geoff. 
The  Hydromys  have  many  external  points  of  relation  to  the  Echimys,  but 
they  are  distinguished  from  all  other  Rats  by  their  hind  feet,  two-thirds  of 


(1)  Myoxus,  Rat  with  a  pointed  nose. 

(2)  Echimys,  or  Spiny  Rat.     Am.  Ed. 


94  MAMMALIA. 

which  are  palmated;  their  two  molars  have  also  a  peculiar  character  in  the 
crown,  which  is  divided  into  obliquely  quadrangular  lobes,  whose  summits 
are  hollowed  out  like  the  bowl  of  a  spoon.     They  are  aquatic. 

Capromts,  Desmar. 

The  Houtias  have  four  molars  every  where  with  flat  crowns,  the  enamel 
of  which  is  folded  inwards  so  that  it  forms  three  angles  on  the  external  edge, 
and  one  only  on  the  internal  edge  of  the  upper  teeth,  and  the  inverse  in  the 
lower  ones.  The  tail  is  round  and  scantily  pilose;  they  have,  like  the  Rats, 
five  toes  to  the  hind  foot,  and  four  with  the  rudiment  of  a  thumb  to  the  fore 
feet;  their  form  is  that  of  a  Rat;  as  large  as  a  Rabbit  or  Hare.  Two  species 
are  known:  one  is  the 

Cap.  prekensilis,  Pceppig.  Brown,  with  a  whitish  throat;  tail  red,  as  long 
as  the  body,  and  partly  naked  at  the  end.  Both  species  inhabit  the  island 
of  Cuba,  and  together  with  the  Agoutis,  at  the  time  of  the  discovery,  consti- 
tuted the  principal  game  of  the  Indians. 

Mus,  Cuv. 

The  true  Hats  have  three  molars  every  where,  of  which  the  anterior  is 
the  largest;  its  crown  is  divided  into  blunt  tubercles,  which,  by  being  worn, 
give  It  the  shape  of  a  disk,  sloped  in  various  directions;  the  tail  is  long  and 
scaly.  These  animals  are  very  injurious  from  their  fecundity,  and  the 
voracity  with  which  they  devour  every  thing  that  comes  within  their 
reach.  There  are  three  species  which  have  become  quite  common  in  our 
houses,  viz. 

M.  musculus,  L.     (The  Common  Mouse.)    Universally  known. 

M.  rattus,  L.  (The  Black  Rat.)  Of  which  no  mention  is  made  by  the 
ancients,  and  which  appears  to  have  entered  Europe  in  the  middle  century. 
It  Is  more  than  double  the  size  of  the  Mouse  In  each  of  Its  dimensions. 
The  fur  is  blackish.  Several  individuals  have  been  occasionally  found  con- 
nected by  the  Interlacing  of  their  tails;  constituting  what  the  Germans 
style  the  King  of  Mats. 

M.  decumanus,  Fall.  (The  Norway  or  Brown  Rat.)  Which  did  not  pass 
into  Europe  till  the  eighteenth  century,  and  is  now  more  common  in  large 
cities  than  the  Black  Rat  itself.  It  is  larger  than  the  latter  by  one-fourth, 
and  differs  from  it  also  by  its  reddish-brown  hair.(l) 

These  two  large  species  appear  to  have  originated  in  the  East,  and  have 
been  transported  in  ships,  together  with  the  Mouse,  to  all  parts  of  the 
globe. 

Gerbillits,  Desm. 
The  Gerbils  haxe  molars  that  differ  very  little  from  those  of  Rats,  merely 


(1)  It  appears  to  belong  to  Persia,  where  It  lives  In  burrows.  It  was  not 
till  1727,  that,  after  an  earthquake,  it  arrived  at  Astracan,  by  swimming 
across  the  "Volga. 


RODENTIA.  96 

becoming  sooner  worn,  so  as  to  form  transverse  elevations.  Their  superior 
incisors  are  furrowed  with  a  groove;  their  hind  feet  are  somewhat  longer  in 
proportion  than  those  of  Rats  in  general,  and  their  thumb  and  little  toe 
slightly  separated.  Their  tail  is  long  and  hairy.  The  sandy  and  warm  parts 
of  the  eastern  continent  produce  several  species. 

G-  indicus.  (The  India  Gerbil.)  Size  of  the  fat  Dormouse;  fawn-co- 
loured above,  whitish  beneath;  tail  longer  than  the  body,  and  blackish  at 
the  end.     The 

Mekiokes,  Fred.  Cuv. 

Which  we  separate  from  the  other  Gerbils,  have  the  hind  feet  still  lon- 
ger; the  tail  nearly  naked,  and  a  very  small  tooth  before  the  superior  mo- 
lars; characters  which  approximate  them  to  the  Jerboas.  Their  upper 
incisors  are  grooved  like  those  of  the  Gerbils,  and  their  toes  also  are  similar. 
There  is  a  small  species  in  North  America,  the 

Mus.  canadensis.  Verm.  (The  Jumping  Mouse.)  Sizeof  a  Mouse;  fawn- 
coloured  grey;  tail  longer  than  the  body.  A  very  active  animal,  that  shuts 
itself  up  in  its  burrow,  and  passes  the  winter  in  a  state  of  lethargy. 

Cricetus,  Cuv. 

The  Hamsters  have  nearly  the  same  kind  of  teeth  as  Rats,  but  their  tail 
is  short  and  hairy,  and  the  two  sides  of  tlieir  mouth  are  hollowed  into  sacs 
or  cheek  pouches,  in  which  they  transport  the  grain  they  collect  to  their 
subterraneous  abodes. 

C.  vulgaris.  (The  Common  Hamster.)  Larger  than  the  Rat;  of  a  red- 
dish-grey above,  black  on  the  flanks  and  underneath,  with  three  whitish 
spots  on  eacli  side.  The  feet,  a  spot  under  the  throat,  and  another  under 
the  breast  white.;  some  individuals  are  all  black.  This  animal,  so  agreeably 
varied  in  colour,  is  one  of  the  most  noxious  that  exist,  gathering  large 
quantities  of  grain  with  which  it  fills  its  burrow  that  is  sometimes  seven  feet 
deep.  It  is  common  in  all  the  sandy  regions,  that  extend  from  the  north 
of  Germany  to  Siberia. 

This  last  country  produces  several  small  species  of  Hamsters  described  by 
Pallas. 

Aevicola,  Lacep. 
The  Arvicolse,  like  the  Rats,  have  three  grinders  every  where,  but  with- 
out roots,  each  one  being  formed  of  triangular  prisms,  placed  on  two  alter- 
nate lines.     They  may  be  subdivided  into  several  groups,  viz. 

Fiber,  Cuv. 

The  Ondatras  or  Musk  ^afo  having  semi-palmated  hind  feet,  a  long  scaly 
and  compressed  tail,  of  which  one  species  only  is  well  known: 

P.  vulgaris.  (The  Canadian  Musk-Rat  or  Ondatra.)  As  large  as  a  Rab- 
bit, of  a  reddish-grey.     In  winter  they  construct,  on  the  ice,  a  hut  of  earth. 


96  MAMMALIA. 

in  which  several  of  them  reside  together,  passing  through  a  hole  in  the 
bottom,  for  the  roots  of  the  acorus  on  which  they  feed.  They  neither  dive 
nor  swim  well.  It  is  this  habit  of  building  which  has  induced  some  authors 
to  refer  the  Ondatra  to  the  genus  Castor.    The  second  subdivision  is  that  of 

ArVICOIA,  CUV. HTPUDiEUS,  Illig. 

Our  common  Field  Hats,  which  have  a  hairy  tall,  about  the  length  of  the 
body,  and  simple  or  not  palmated  feet. 

A.  arvalis.  (The  Campagnol. )  Size  of  a  Mouse;  of  a  reddish-ash  colour; 
tail  not  so  long  as  the  body.  It  inhabits  holes  which  it  excavates  in  the 
earth,  where  it  collects  grain  for  the  winter.  The  multiplication  of  this 
animal  is  sometimes  so  excessive  as  to  cause  much  injury. 

Geoktchus,  Illig. 

Or  the  Lemmings,  Cuv.  have  very  short  ears  and  tail,  and  the  toes  of  the 
fore  feet  peculiarly  well  formed  for  digging. 

G.  lemmus.  (The  Lemming.)  A  northern  species,  as  large  as  a  Rat, 
"with  black  and  yellow  fur,  very  celebrated  for  its  occasional  migrations  in 
innumerable  bodies.  At  these  periods  they  are  said  to  march  in  a  straight 
line,  regardless  of  rivers  or  mountains;  and  while  no  obstacle  can  impede 
their  progress,  they  devastate  the  country  through  which  they  pass.  Their 
usual  residence  appears  to  be  the  shores  of  the  Arctic  ocean. 

G.  hudsonius;  Mas.  hudsonius,  Gm.,  Schreb.  (The  Lemming  of  Hudson's 
Bay.)  A  light  pearly-ash  colour;  without  tail  or  external  ears;  the  two  mid- 
dle toes  of  the  fore  foot  of  the  male  seem  to  have  double  claws,  which  is 
owing  to  the  skin  at  the  end  of  the  toe  being  callous  and  projecting  from 
under  the  nail,  a  deposition  of  the  part  hitherto  unknown,  except  in  this 
animal.     It  is  the  size  of  a  Rat,  and  lives  under  ground,  in  Nortli  America. 

Otomts,  Fred.  Cuv. 

The  Otomys  are  nearly  allied  to  the  Field  Rats,  and  have  also  three  grin- 
ders, but  they  are  composed  of  slightly  arcuated  lamina  arranged  in  file. 
Their  incisors  are  grooved  with  a  longitudinal  furrow,  and  the  tail  is  hairy, 
as  well  as  the  ears,  which  are  large. 

0.  capensis,  Fred.  Cuv.  (The  Cape  Otomys. )  Size  of  a  Rat;  fur  marked 
with  black  and  fawn  coloured  rings;  tail  a  third  shorter  than  the  body. 

DiPTJS,  Gm. 

The  Jerhoas\\2L\e  nearly  the  same  kind  of  teeth  as  the  true  Rats,  except 
that  there  is  sometimes  a  very  small  one  immediately  before  the  upper  mo- 
lars. The  tall  is  long  and  tufted  at  the  end;  the  head  large;  the  eyes  large 
and  prominent;  but  their  principal  character  consists  in  their  posterior  ex- 
tremities, which,  in  comparison  with  the  anterior,  are  of  a  most  immode- 
rate length,  and  above  all,  in  the  metatarsus  of  the  three  middle  toes,  which 
is  formed  of  one  single  bone,  resembling  what  is  called  the  tarsus  in  Birds. 


RODENTIA.  97 

It  is  from  this  disproportion  of  the  limbs  that  they  were  named  by  the  an- 
cients Biped  Rats,  and  in  fact  they  seldom  move  otherwise  than  by  great 
leaps  on  their  hind  feet.  There  are  five  toes  to  each  of  the  fore  feet,  and 
in  certain  species,  besides  the  tliree  great  toes  to  the  hind  feet,  there  are 
small  lateral  ones.  They  live  in  burrows,  and  become  torpid  during  the 
winter. 

D.  sagitta.  The  Jerboa  has  only  three  toes,  and  is  the  size  of  a  Rat;  a 
light  fawn  colour  above;  white  beneath;  tuft  of  the  tail  black,  the  tip  white. 
Is  found  from  Barbary  to  the  north  of  the  Caspian  sea. 

Helamys,  F.  Cuv. — Pedetes,  Illig.(l) 
The  Jumping  Hares,  like  the  Jerboas,  have  a  large  head  and  great  eyes, 
a  long  tail,  and  the  anterior  part  of  the  body  extremely  small,  in  compari- 
son to  the  posterior,  although  the  disproportion  is  much  less  than  in  the 
true  Gerboas.  The  peculiar  characters  of  the  Helamys  are  four  grinders 
every  where,  each  one  composed  of  two  laminae;  five  toes  to  the  fore-feet, 
armed  with  long  and  pointed  nails,  and  fonr  to  their  great  hind  ones,  all 
separate,  even  to  the  bones  of  the  metatarsus,  and  terminated  by  large  nails, 
almost  resembling  hoofs.  This  number  of  toes  is  tlie  inverse  of  that  most 
common  among  tlie  Rats.  Their  inferior  incisors  are  truncated,  and  not 
pointed  like  those  of  the  true  Jerboas,  and  of  the  greater  part  of  the  ani» 
mals  comprised  under  the  genus  of  Rats.  One  species  only  is  known,  the 
H.  Caffer.  It  is  the  size  of  a  Hare,  of  a  light  fawn  colour,  and  has  a  long 
tufted  tail,  with  a  black  tip.  Inhabits  deep  burrows  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope. 

Spalax,  Gulden. 
The  Rat-Moles  have  also  been  very  properly  separated  from  the  Rats,  al- 
tliough  their  grinders  are  three  in  number,  and  tuberculous,  as  in  the  true 
Rats,  and  the  Hamsters,  and  are  merely  a  little  less  unequal.  Their  inci- 
sors, however,  are  two  large  to  be  covered  by  the  lips,  and  the  extremities 
of  the  lower  ones  are  trenchant,  rectilinear,  and  transverse,  not  pointed. 
Their  legs  are  very  short;  each  foot  has  five  sliort  toes,  and  as  many  flat  and 
slender  nails.  Their  tail  is  very  short,  or  rather  there  is  none;  the  same 
observation  applies  to  their  extei-nal  ear.  They  live  under  ground  like  the 
Moles,  raising  up  the  earth  like  them,  although  provided  with  much  infe- 
rior means  for  dividing  it;  but  tliey  subsist  on  roots  only. 

S.  typhus.  (The  Zanni,  Slepez,  or  Blind  Rat-Mole.)  A  singular  animal, 
which,  from  its  large  head,  angular  on  the  sides,  its  short  legs,  the  total 
absence  of  a  tail  and  of  any  apparent  eye,  has  a  most  shapeless  appearance. 
The  eye  is  not  visible  externally,  and  we  merely  find  beneath  the  skin  a 
little  black  point,  which  appears  to  be  organised  like  one,  but  which  can- 
not serve  for  the  purpose  of  vision,  since  the  skin  passes  over  it  without 
opening  or  even  growing  thinner,  and  being  as  much  covered  with  hair  as 


(1)  Petfefes,  jumper;  Helamys,  Jumping-Rat. 

N 


98  MAMMALIA. 

any  other  part.    It  is  rather  larger  than  our  Rat;  its  fur  is  smooth,  and  of  an 
ash-colour,  bordering  on  a  red.     This  is  the  animal,  in  the  opinion  of  Oli- 
vier, to  which  the  ancients  alluded  when  they  spoke  of  the  Mole  as  being 
perfectly  blind. 
From  the  Rat-Moles  themselves  should  have  been  separated  the 

Bathyergus,  Illig. — Okycteres,  Fr.  Cuv. 
Which,  with  the  general  form,  feet,  and  truncated  incisors  of  that  genus, 
have  four  grinders  throughout.     Their  eye,  though  small,  is  visible,  and 
they  have  a  short  tail. 

B.  maritimus.  (The  Maritime  Rat-Mole.)  Nearly  the  size  of  a  Rabbit; 
the  superior  incisors  furrowed  with  a  groove,  and  the  hair  of  a  whitish  grey. 

Geomys,  Rafin. — Pseudostoma,  Say. 
Which  have  four  compressed  prismatic  molars  throughout,  the  first  double, 
the  remaining  three  simple;  the  upper  incisors  furrowed  with  a  double 
groove  in  front;  five  toes  to  each  foot;  the  three  middle  anterior  nails,  that 
of  the  medius  particularly,  veiy  long,  crooked,  and  trenchant.  Tliey  are 
low  animals,  and  have  very  deep  cheek-pouches,  which  open  externally, 
enlarging  the  sides  of  the  head  and  neck  in  a  singular  manner.  One  spe- 
cies only  is  known, 

G.  hursarius.  (The  Canada  Hamster.)  Size  of  a  Rat;  fur  of  a  reddish- 
grey;  tail  naked,  and  but  half  the  length  of  the  body.  Inhabits  deep  bur- 
rows in  the  interior  of  North  America. 

DiPLosTOMA,  Rafin. 

The  Diplostomse  are  almost  precisely  similar  to  the  Geomys,  but  they  have 
no  tail. 

These  animals  are  also  from  North  America.  The  species  before  us  is 
reddish,  and  ten  inches  in  length. 

We  now  pass  to  larger  Rodentia  than  these  of  which  we  have 
hitherto  spoken,  but  of  which  several  still  have  well  defined  clavicles. 
Of  this  number  is  the 

Castor,  Lin. 

The  Beavers  are  distinguished  from  all  other  Rodentia  by  their  horizon- 
tally flattened  tail,  which  is  nearly  of  an  oval  form,  and  covered  with  scales. 
They  have  five  toes  to  each  foot:  those  of  the  hinder  ones  are  connected  by 
membranes,  and  that  next  to  the  thumb  has  a  double  and  oblique  nail. 
Their  grinders,  to  the  number  of  four  throughout,  and  with  flat  crowns, 
appear  as  if  formed  of  a  doubled  bony  fillet,  or  so  as  to  show  one  sloping 
edge  at  the  internal  extremities  of  the  upper  row,  and  three  at  the  exter- 
nal; in  the  lower  ones  it  is  exactly  the  reverse. 

Beavers  are  large  animals,  whose  hfe  is  completely  aquatic;  their  feet  and 
tail  aid  them  equally  in  swimming.    As  their  chief  food  is  bark,  and  other 


RODENTIA.  99 

hard  substances,  their  incisors  are  very  powerful,  and  grow  as  rapidly  from 
the  root,  as  they  are  worn  away  at  the  point.  With  these  teeth  they  cut 
trees  of  every  description. 

They  have  large  glandular  pouches  which  produce  a  highly  odorous  oily 
substance,  employed  in  medicine  under  the  name  of  Castor- 

C.  Jiber,  Buff.  (The  Beaver.)  Larger  than  the  Badger,  and  of  all  quad- 
rupeds the  most  industrious  in  constructing  a  dwelling,  to  effect  wliich  these 
animals  act  in  concert.  They  are  found  in  the  most  solitary  parts  of  North 
America. 

Beavers  choose  water  of  such  a  depth  as  is  not  likely  to  be  frozen  to  the 
bottom,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  running  streams,  in  order  that  the  wood 
which  they  cut  above,  may  be  can-ied  downwards  by  the  cuiTent  to  tlie  spot 
where  it  is  to  be  used.  They  keep  the  water  at  an  equal  height,  by  dams 
composed  of  branches  of  trees,  mixed  with  clay  and  stones,  the  strength  of 
which  is  annually  increased,  and  which  finally,  by  the  progress  of  vegetation, 
becomes  converted  into  a  hedge.  Each  hut  serves  for  two  or  tliree  families, 
and  consists  of  two  stories;  the  upper  is  dry  for  the  residence  of  the  animals, 
and  the  lower  under  water  for  their  stores  of  bark,  &c.  The  latter  alone  is 
open,  and  the  entrance  is  under  water,  having  no  communication  with  the 
land.  The  huts  are  a  kind  of  rude  wicker-work,  being  made  of  interwoven 
branches  and  twigs  of  trees  plastered  with  inud.  There  are  always  several 
burrows  along  the  bank,  in  which  they  seek  for  shelter  when  their  huts  are 
attacked.  They  only  reside  in  these  habitations  during  the  winter;  in  the 
summer  they  separate,  and  live  sohtary.  The  Beaver  may  be  easily  tamed, 
and  accustomed  to  feed  on  animal  matters.  It  is  of  a  uniform  reddish  brown 
colour,  and  the  fur,  as  is  well  known,  is  in  great  demand  for  hatters.  It  is 
sometimes  found  flaxen  coloured,  at  otliers  black,  or  even  white. 

MropoTAMUs,  Commer. 
The  Couias  resemble  the  Beaver  in  size,  in  their  four  nearly  similarly  com- 
posed molars,  in  their  powerful  yellow-tinted  incisors,  and  in  their  five-toed 
feet,  the  hinder  ones  of  which  are  palmated;  but  their  tail  is  round  and 
elongated.     They  are  aquatic  animals  also.     One  only  is  known,  the 

M.  coipus.  (The  Couia. )  Which  lives  in  burrows  along  the  banks  of 
rivers  throughout  a  great  part  of  South  America. 

Hysteix,  Lin. 

The  Porcupines  are  known  at  the  first  glance  by  the  stiff  and  sharp  spines, 
or  quills  (as  they  are  called),  with  which  they  are  armed,  hke  the  Hedge- 
hogs among  the  Carnaria.  Their  grinders  are  four  throughout,  with  flat 
crowns,  variously  modified  by  plates  of  enamel,  between  which  are  de- 
pressed intervals.  Their  tongue  is  bristled  with  spiny  scales,  and  their  cla- 
vicles are  too  small  to  rest  upon  the  sternum  and  scapula,  being  merely 
suspended  by  ligaments.  They  live  in  burrows,  and  have  many  of  the 
habits  of  the  Rabbits.  To  their  grunting  voice,  and  thick  truncated  muz- 
zle, are  they  indebted  for  being  compared  to  the  Pig,  and  for  their  corres- 
ponding French  appellation  oi pore-epic. 


100  MAMMALIA. 

PoBCTTPijN-E8,  properly  so  called, 

Have  the  head  more  or  less  convex  or  vaulted,  by  the  development  of 
the  bones  of  the  nose.  They  have  four  toes  before,  and  five  behind,  all 
armed  with  stout  nails. 

H.  cristqta.  (The  Common  Porcupine.)  Inhabits  the  south  of  Italy, 
Spain,  and  Sicily;  it  is  also  found  in  Barbary.  The  spines  are  very  long', 
and  annulated  with  black  and  white;  a  mane  coTnposed  of  long  hairs  occu- 
pies the  head  and  neck.  The  tail  is  short,  and  furnished  with  hollow  trun- 
cated tubes,  suspended  to  slender  pedicles,  which  make  a  noise  when 
shaken  by  the  animal. 

ATHEnuKtJs,  Cuv. 

Where  neither  the  head  nor  muzzle  is  inflated,  and  in  which  we  observe 
a  long  non-prehensile  tail;  the  toes  are  like  those  of  the  true  Porcupines. 

Hyst.  fasdculata,  L.  Buff.  (The  Pencil-tailed  Porcupine. )  The  upper 
part  of  the  spines  on  the  back  grooved,  and  the  tail  terminated  by  a  bundle 
of  flattened  horny  slips,  constricted  from  space  to  space. 

Eretison,  F.  Cuv. 

The  Ursons  have  a  flat  cranium;  the  muzzle  short,  and  not  convex;  the 
tail  of  a  middle  size,  and  the  spines  short,  and  half  hidden  in  the  hair.  One 
species  only  is  known,  the 

Hystrix  dorsata,  L.    (The  Urson.)    From  North  America. 

Stnetheres,  F.  Cuv. 
The  muzzle  short  and  thick;  the  head  vaulted  in  front,  and  the  spines 
short;  the  tail  long,  naked  at  the  extremity,  and  prehensile,  like  that  of  an 
Opossum  or  Sapajou.     There  are  only  four  toes,  all  armed  with  claws; 
they  climb  trees. 

Lepus,  Lin. 
Hares  have  a  very  distinctive  character  in  their  superior  incisors,  which  are 
double,  that  is,  each  of  them  has  a  smaller  one  behind  it.  Their  molai-s, 
five  every  where,  are  individually  formed  of  two  vertical  laminae  soldered 
together,  and  in  the  upper  jaw  there  is  a  sixth,  simple  and  very  small. 
They  have  five  toes  before  and  four  behind.  The  inside  of  their  mouth, 
and  the  under  part  of  the  feet  are  lined  with  hairs  like  the  rest  of  the  body. 

Lepus,  Cuv. 

Or  the  true  Hares,  have  long  ears;  a  short  tail;  the  hind  feet  much  longer 
than  the  fore  ones;  imperfect  clavicles,  and  the  infra-orbitary  spaces  in  the 
skeleton  reticulated.  The  species  are  so  numerous  and  similar,  that  it  is 
difficult  to  characterise  them. 

L.  Americanus,  Gm.  (The  American  Rabbit.)  Nearly  similar  in  size  and 
colour  to  the  European  species;  feet  reddish;  no  black  on  either  ears  or  tail. 
Nestles  in  the  hollows  of  trees,  up  which  it  sometimes  ascends  as  far  as  the 
branches.    Flesh  soft  and  insipid. 


RODENTIA.  101 

Lasomts,  Cuv.(l) 

Moderate  ears;  legs  nearly  alike;  the  hole  below  the  eye  simple;  clavicles 
nearly  perfect,  and  no  tail;  they  often  utter  a  sharp  cry.  They  have  hitherto 
been  found  in  Siberia  only,  and  it  is  to  Pallas  that  we  are  indebted  for  their 
discovery. 

The  fossil  bones  of  an  unknown  species  of  Lagomys  have  been  discovered 
in  the  osseous  breccia  of  Corsica. 

After  the  two  genera  of  Porcupines  and  Hares,  come  the  Rodentia, 
united  by  Linnaeus  and  Pallas  under  the  name  of  Cavia;  but  to  which  it  is 
impossible  to  affix  any  other  common  and  positive  character  than  that  of 
their  imperfect  clavicles,  although  the  species  of  which  they  are  composed 
are  very  analogous  to  each  other,  both  in  body  and  habits.  They  are  all 
from  the  western  continent. 

Hydeoch(erus,  Erxleb.(2) 

Four  toes  before  and  three  behind,  all  armed  with  large  nails,  and  united 
by  membranes;  four  grinders  throughout,  of  which  the  posterior  are  the 
longest,  and  composed  of  numerous,  simple  and  parallel  lamins;  the  an- 
terior laminx,  forked  towards  the  external  edge  in  the  upper,  and  towards 
the  internal  one  in  the  lower  teeth.  Only  one  species  is  known,  the  Capy' 
bara,  which  inhabits  Guiana. 

Cavia,  Illig. 

The  Cohayes,  or  Guinea- Pigs,  are  miniature  representations  of  the  Cabials; 
but  their  toes  are  separated,  and  each  of  their  molars  has  only  one  simple 
lamina,  and  one  that  is  forked  on  the  outside  in  the  upper  ones,  and  on  the 
inside  in  the  lower.    It  is  found  in  the  woods  of  Brazil  and  Paraguay. 

Chloromys,  Fr.  Cuv.(3) 
The  Agoutis  have  four  toes  before  and  three  behind;  four  grinders  through- 
out, almost  equal,  with  flat  crowns  iiTCgularly  fun-owed,  rounded  borders 
notched  on  the  internal  edge  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  on  the  external  one  in 
the  lower.  In  disposition,  and  in  the  nature  of  their  flesh,  they  resemble 
Hares  and  Rabbits,  which  they  may  be  said  to  replace  in  the  Antilles  and 
hot  parts  of  America. 

CCELOGENYS,  Fr.    Cuv.(4) 
The  Pacas,  in  addition  to  teeth  very  like  those  of  the  Agoutis,  have  a  veiy 
small  toe  on  the  internal  edge  of  the  fore  foot,  and  one  on  each  side,  equally 
small  on  their  hinder  one,  making  five  toes  everywhere. 

There  is  one  species  or  variety  fawn  coloured,  and  another  brown,  both  of 
which  are  spotted  with  wliite,  the  Cavia paca,  L. 


(1)  Lagomys,  i.  e.  Rat-Hares-         (2)  Hydroclimriis,  water-pig. 
(3)  Chloromys,  yellow  rat.  (4)  Ccelogmys,  hollow  cheek. 


102  MAMMALIA. 

Finally,  there  remains  an  animal  perhaps  nearly  allied  to  the  Cavias,  and 
possibly  more  so  to  the  Lagomys  or  the  Rats,  which  we  are  unable  to  dis- 
pose of,  on  account  of  our  ignorance  of  its  teeth;  I  mean  the  Chinchilla, 
thousands  of  whose  skins  are  to  be  had,  but  of  which  we  have  never  yet 
been  able  to  procure  the  entire  body.  It  is  about  the  size  of  a  smaJl  Rabbit; 
is  covered  with  long-,  close  and  fine  hair,  the  softest  that  is  known  among 
conraion  fui-s.     This  quadruped  inhabits  the  mountains  of  South  America. 


ORDER  VI. 

EDENTATA. 

The  Edentata,  or  quadrupeds  without  front  teeth,  will  form  our 
last  order  of  unguiculated  animals.  Although  united  by  a  character 
purely  negative,  they  have,  nevertheless,  some  positive  mutual  re- 
lations, and  particularly  large  nails,  which  embrace  the  extremities 
of  the  toes,  approaching  more  or  less  to  the  nature  of  hoofs:  a  slow- 
ness, a  want  of  agility,  obviously  arising  from  the  peculiar  organi- 
zation of  their  limbs.  There  are,  however,  certain  intervals  in  these 
relations,  which  render  it  necessary  to  divide  the  order  into  three 
tribes.     The  first  of  these  is  the 

TAllDIGRADA. 
They  have  a  short  face.  Their  name  originates  from  their  ex- 
cessive slowness,  the  consequence  of  a  construction  truly  heteroc- 
lite,  in  which  nature  seems  to  have  amused  herself  by  producing 
something  imperfect  and  grotesque.  The  only  genus  now  in  exis- 
tence is 

Bkadypus,  Lin. 

The  Slothshaye  cylindrical  molars,  and  sharp  canini  longer  than  those  molars, 
two  mammx  on  the  breast,  and  fingers  united  by  the  skin,  and  only  marked 
externally  by  enormous  compressed  and  crooked  naUs,  which,  when  at  rest, 
are  always  bent  towards  the  palm  of  the  hand,  or  the  sole  of  the  foot.  The 
hind  feet  are  obhquely  articulated  on  the  leg,  and  rest  only  upon  tlieir  outer 
edge;  the  phalanges  of  the  toes  are  artic\ilated  by  a  close  ginglymus,  and 
the  first,  at  a  certain  age,  becomes  soldered  to  the  bones  of  the  metacarpus 
or  metatarsus,  which  also,  in  time,  for  want  of  use,  expei-ience  the  same  fate. 
To  this  inconvenience  in  the  organization  of  the  extremities  is  added  another, 
not  less  great,  in  their  proportions.     The  pelvis  is  so  large,  and  their  thighs 


EDENTATA.  103 

so  much  inclined  to  the  sides,  that  they  cannot  approximate  their  knees. 
Their  gait  is  the  necessary  effect  of  such  a  disproportioned  structure.  They 
live  in  trees,  and  never  remove  from  the  one  tliey  are  on  until  they  have 
stripped  it  of  every  leaf,  so  painfid  to  them  is  the  requisite  exertion  to  reach 
another.  It  is  even  asserted  tliat  to  avoid  tlie  trouble  of  a  regular  descent, 
they  let  tliemselves  fall  from  a  branch.  The  female  produces  but  a  single 
yoimg  one  at  a  bu-th,  which  she  carries  on  her  back. 

Bradypus  tridadylus,  L.  (TheAi. )  A  species  in  which  sluggishness, 
and  all  the  details  of  the  organization  wluch  produce  it,  are  carried  to  the 
highest  degree.  The  thumb  and  the  httle  toe,  reduced  to  small  i-udiments, 
are  hidden  under  the  skin,  and  soldered  to  the  metatarsus  and  metacarpus; 
the  clavicle,  also  reduced  to  a  rudiment,  is  firmly  united  to  the  acromion. 
The  ai-ms  are  double  the  length  of  the  legs;  the  hair  on  the  head,  back  and 
limbs  is  long,  coarse  and  non-elastic,  something  hke  dried  hay,  which  gives 
it  a  most  hideous  aspect.  Its  colour  is  grey,  the  back  being  frequently  spot- 
ted with  white  and  brown.  It  is  as  large  as  a  Cat,  and  is  the  only^mammifer- 
ous  animal  known  which  has  nine  cervical  vertebrx. 

Fossil  skeletons  of  two  Edentata  of  great  size  have  been  discov- 
ered in  America,  one  of  which,  the  Megatherium,  has  a  head  very 
similar  to  that  of  the  Sloths,  but  deficient  as  to  canini,  and  approach- 
ing in  other  parts  of  the  skeleton,  partly  to  the  Sloths,  and  partly  to 
the  Ant-eaters.  It  is  twelve  feet  long,  and  six  or  seven  high.  The 
other,  the  Megalonyx,  is  rather  smaller,  and  the  toes  are  the  only 
parts  of  it  that  are  well  known,  but  they  strongly  resemble  those  of 
the  preceding. 

The  second  tribe  comprehends  the 

EDENTATA  ORDINARIA, 
Or  the  Ordinary  Edentata  with  a  pointed  muzzle.     Some  of  them 
still  have  cheek  teeth.     They  form  two  genera. 

Dasyptjs,  Lin. 
The  Armadillos  are  very  remarkable  among  the  Mammalia,  by  the  scaly 
and  hard  shell  formed  of  compartments  resembling  Httle  paving  stones, 
which  covers  their  head  and  body,  and  frequently  their  taU.  This  sub- 
stance forms  one  shield  over  the  forehead,  a  second  very  large  and  convex 
over  the  shoulders,  a  third  on  the  croup  similar  to  the  second,  and  between 
the  two  latter  several  parallel  and  movable  bands,  which  allow  the  body  to 
bend.  The  tad  is  sometimes  furnished  with  successive  rings,  and  at  others, 
hke  the  legs,  merely  with  tubercles.  These  animals  have  large  ears,  and 
sometimes  four,  and  at  others  five  great  na'ds  before,  but  always  five  behind. 
They  dig  burrows,  and  live  partly  on  vegetables,  and  partly  on  insects  and 


104  MAMMALIA. 

dead  bodies.  They  all  belong  to  the  hot,  or  at  least  to  the  temperate  parts 
of  America. 

They  may  be  divided  into  subgenera  from  considerations  drawn  from  the 
structure  of  their  fore  feet  and  the  number  of  their  teeth.  Most  of  them 
have  only  four  toes  to  the  anterior  feet,  the  two  middle  ones  of  which  are 
the  longest.     These  subgenera  are 

Cachicamtjs,  Cuv.  (to  which  belongs  the  9-banded  Armadillo);  Apara, 
Cuv.  (3-banded  Armadillo);  Encottbiktus,  Cuv.  (6-banded  Annadillo);  Ca- 
BAssous,  Cuv.  (The  Tatouay);  Pkiodois-,  Fr.  Cuv.  (The  Giant  Armadillo); 
and  the  Clamtphortjs,  Harl.,  of  which  only  one  is  known,  the  C  iruncatus, 
Harl.' 

It  appears  that  the  fossil  bones  of  a  Tatou  of  gigantic  size,  being  ten  feet 
long  exclusive  of  the  taU,  have  been  found  in  America.  See  Cuv.  Oss.  Foss. 
v.  part  1,  p.  191,  note. 

Orycteropus,  Geoff.(l) 
The  animals  of  this  genus  were  for  a  long  time  confoimded  with  the  Ant- 
Eaters  on  account  of  their  using  the  same  kind  of  food,  having  a  similar  head, 
and  a  tongue  somewhat  extensible;  but  they  are  distinguished  from  them  by 
being  furnished  with  gi-mders  and  flat  nails,  formed  for  digging  and  not 
trenchant.  The  structure  of  their  teeth  differs  from  that  of  all  other  quad- 
rupeds; they  are  sohd  cylinders  traversed  hke  reeds,  in  a  longitudiaal  di- 
rection, with  an  infinitude  of  httle  canals.  There  is  only  one  species  known. 
Oryd.  capensis.  (The  Cape  Ground-Hog. )  It  is  an  animal  about  the  size 
of  the  Badger  or  larger;  stands  low;  has  short  hah-,  and  is  of  a  brownish-grey. 
The  tail  is  not  so  long  as  the  body,  and  is  covered  with  equally  short  hairs. 
It  has  four  toes  before,  and  five  behind.  Inhabits  buiTOws,  which  it  exca- 
vates with  great  facUity.     The  flesh  is  eaten. 

The  other  ordinary  Edentata  have  no  grinders,  and  consequently 
no  teeth  of  any  description.     They  also  form  two  genera. 

Myrmecophaga,  Lin. 
The  Jlnt-Eaters  are  hairy  animals  with  a  long  muzzle  terminated  by  a 
small  toothless  mouth,  from  which  is  proti'uded  a  fiUform  tongue  suscepti- 
ble of  considerable  elongation,  and  which  they  insinuate  mto  Ant-liills  and 
the  nests  of  the  Termites,  whence  these  insects  are  withdrawn  by  being  en- 
tangled in  the  viscid  saliva  that  covers  it.  The  naUs  of  the  fore  feet,  strong 
and  trenchant,  and  varying  m  number  according  to  the  species,  sei"ve  to  tear 
up  the  nests  of  the  Termites,  and  aff'ord  the  means  of  defence. 

They  all  inhabit  the  hot  and  temperate  parts  of  the  western  continent, 
and  produce  but  a  single  young  one  at  a  bh-th,  which  they  cany  on  their 
back. 


(1)  Oryderopus,  feet  fitted  for  digging. 


EDENTATA.  105 

Manis,  Lin. 

The  Pangolins,  or  Scaly  Ant-Eaters  as  they  are  called,  are  destitute  of 
teeth,  have  a  very  extensible  tongue,  and  hve  on  Ants  and  Termites  like 
true  Ant-Eaters;  but  their  body,  limbs  and  tail  are  clothed  with  large  tren- 
chant scales  arranged  like  tiles,  which  tliey  elevate  in  rolling  themselves  into 
a  ball,  when  they  wish  to  defend  themselves  from  an  enemy.  There  are 
five  toes  to  each  foot.  Their  stomach  is  slightly  divided  in  the  middle,  and 
there  is  no  caecum.     They  are  confined  to  tlie  eastern  continent. 

The  third  tribe  of  tlie  Edentata  comprehends  those  animals,  de- 
signated by  M.  Geoffroy,  under  the  name  of 

MONOTREMATA. 

The  singularities  of  their  skeleton  are  very  remarkable;  a  sort 
of  clavicle,  which  is  common  to  both  shoulders,  being  placed  before 
the  ordinary  clavicle,  and  analogous  to  the  fourchette  in  birds.  Fi- 
nally, besides  their  five  nails  to  each  foot,  the  males  have  a  spur  on 
the  hinder  ones,  perforated  by  a  canal  which  transmits  the  liquid 
secreted  by  a  gland  situated  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  thigh.  It 
is  asserted  that  the  wounds  it  inflicts  are  envenomed.  These  ani- 
mals have  no  external  conch  to  their  ears,  and  their  eyes  are  very 
small. 

The  Monotremata  are  only  found  in  New  Holland,  and  have  been 
discovered  since  the  settlement  of  the  English.  Two  genera  of  them 
are  known. 

Echidna,  Cuv. 

The  elongated  slender  muzzle  of  the  Spiny  Ant-Eaters,  terminated  by  a 
small  mouth,  contains  an  extensible  tongiie  similar  to  that  of  the  Ant- Eaters 
and  Pangolins,  and,  like  them,  they  feed  on  Ants.  They  have  no  teeth,  but 
their  palate  is  furnished  with  several  rows  of  small  recurved  spines.  Their 
short  feet  have  each  five  very  long  and  stout  nails  fitted  for  digging;  and  the 
upper  surface  of  the  body  is  covered  with  spines  like  that  of  the  Hedgehog. 
It  appears,  that,  when  in  danger,  they  also  possess  the  faculty  of  rolling 
themselves  into  a  ball.     There  are  two  species. 

E.  hystrix.  (The  Spiny  Echidna.)  Completely  covered  with  large 
spines. 

E.  getosa.  (The  Bristly  Echidna.)  Is  covered  with  hair,  among  which 
the  spines  are  half  hidden.  Some  naturalists  consider  it  as  a  mere  variety 
from  age. 

Ornithorhynchus,  Blumenb. — PlatypuS;  Shaw. 
The  elongated,  and  at  the  same  time  singularly  enlarged  and  flattened  muz- 

o 


106  MAMMALIA. 

zle  of  the  Ornithorhynchi  presents  the  closest  external  resemblance  to  the 
bill  of  a  Duck,  and  the  more  so  as  its  edges  are  similarly  furnished  with  small 
transverse  laminse.  There  is  a  membrane  to  the  fore  feet,  which  not  only 
unites  the  toes,  but  extends  far  beyond  the  nails;  in  the  hind  feet  the  mem- 
brane terminates  at  the  root  ofthenaUs;  two  characters,  which,  with  the 
flattened  tail,  make  them  aquatic  animals.  The  Ornithorhynchi  inhabit  the 
rivers  and  marshes  of  New  Holland  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Port  Jackson. 

Two  species  only  are  known,  one  with  smooth,  thin,  reddish  fur,  the 
Ornithorhynchus  paradoxus,  Blumenb.,  and  the  other  with  blackish-brown, 
flat  and  frizzled  hair.     Probably  these  are  only  varieties  of  age. 


ORDER  VII. 

PACHYDERMATA.(l) 

The  Edentata  terminate  the  series  of  unguiculated  animals,  and 
we  have  just  seen  that  there  are  some  of  them  whose  nails  are  so 
large,  and  so  envelope  the  extremities  of  the  toes,  as  to  approximate 
them  in  a  certain  degree  to  the  hoofed  animals.  They  still,  however, 
possess  the  faculty  of  bending  these  toes  round  various  objects,  and 
of  seizing  with  more  or  less  force.  The  total  deficiency  of  this 
faculty  characterizes  the  hoofed  animals.  Their  forms  and  habits 
present  much  less  variety  than  those  of  the  Unguiculata,  and  they 
can  hardly  be  divided  into  more  than  two  orders,  those  which  rumi- 
nate, and  those  which  do  not;  but  these  latter,  which  we  designate 
coljectively  by  the  term  Pachydermata^  admit  of  subdivision  into 
families. 

The  first  is  that  of  the  Pachydermata  which  have  a  proboscis  and 
tusks. 


FAMILY  I. 

PROBOSCIDIANA. 

The  Proboscidians  have  five  toes  to  each  foot,  very  complete 
in  the  skeleton,  but  so  encrusted  by  the  callous  skin  which  surrounds 


(1)  Thick-skinned  animals. 


PACHYDERMATA.  107 

the  foot,  that  their  only  external  appearance  is  in  the  nails  attached 
to  the  edge  of  this  species  of  hoof.  They  have  no  canini  or  incisors 
properly  so  called,  but  in  their  incisive  bone  are  implanted  two 
tusks,  which  project  from  the  mouth,  and  frequently  attain  to  an 
enormous  size.  The  magnitude  requisite  for  the  alveoli  of  these 
tusks  renders  the  upper  jaw  so  high,  and  so  shortens  the  bones  of 
the  nose,  that  the  nostrils  in  the  skeleton  are  placed  near  the  top  of 
the  face;  but  in  the  living  animal  they  are  continued  out  into  a  cylin- 
drical trunk  or  proboscis,  composed  of  several  thousands  of  small 
muscles,  variously  interlaced,  extremely  flexible,  endowed  with  the 
most  exquisite  sensibility,  and  terminated  by  an  appendage  resem- 
bling a  finger.  This  proboscis  is  to  the  Elephant  what  the  hand  is 
to  the  Monkey. 

But  one  living  genus  of  the  Proboscidiana  is  known,  that  of 

Elephas,  Lin. 

Or  the  Elephant,  which  comprehends  the  largest  of  the  terrestrial  Mammalia. 
Their  food  is  strictly  vegetable. 

The  Elephants  of  the  present  day,  clothed  with  a  rough  skin  nearly  des- 
titute of  hair,  are  only  found  in  the  torrid  zone  of  the  eastern  continent, 
where  hitherto  only  two  species  have  been  ascertained. 

E.  indicus,  Cuv.  (The  Elephant  of  India.)  An  oblong  head;  the  crown 
of  the  grinders  presenting  transverse  undulating  fillets,  which  are  sections 
of  the  laminae  which  compose  them  worn  by  trituration.  This  species  has 
rather  smaller  ears  than  the  next  one,  and  has  fournaUs  to  the  hind  foot.  It 
is  found  from  the  Indus  to  the  Eastern  ocean,  and  in  the  large  islands  in  the 
south  of  India.  They  have  been  used  from  the  earliest  ages  as  beasts  of 
draught  and  burden.  The  females  have  very  short  tusks,  and  in  this  respect 
many  of  the  males  resemble  them. 

E.  africanus,  Cuv.  (The  African  Elephant.)  A  round  head;  convex 
forehead;  large  ears;  the  crowns  of  the  grinders  divided  into  lozenges. 
Found  from  Senegal  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  tusks  of  the  female 
are  as  large  as  those  of  the  male,  and  the  weapon  itself,  generally  speaking, 
is  larger  than  in  the  Indian  species.  The  African  Elephant  is  not  now  tamed, 
though  it  appears  that  the  Carthaginians  employed  it  in  the  same  way  that 
the  inhabitants  of  India  do  theirs. 

The  second  genus  of  the  Proboscidiana  is  the 

Mastodon,  Cuv. 
The  Mammoth  has  been  completely  destroyed,  nor  is  there  a  single  individual 
living.     It  had  the  feet,  tusks,  trunk,  and  many  other  details  of  conforma- 
tion in  common  with  the  Elephant;  but  differed  from  it  in  the  grinders. 
M.  giganteum.    The  Great  Mastodon,  in  which  the  sections  of  the  points 


108  MAMMALIA. 

are  lozenge-shaped,  is  the  most  celebrated  species.  It  equalled  the  Ele- 
phant in  size,  but  with  stLU  heavier  proportions.  Its  remains  are  found  ina 
wonderful  state  of  preservation,  and  in  great  abundance  throughout  aU  parts 
of  North  America.  They  are  infinitely  more  rare  in  the  eastern  continent. 
The  M.  angustidens  was  a  tliird  less  than  the  great  Mastodon,  and  much 
lower  on  its  legs.  Its  remains  are  found  throughout  the  greater  part  of 
Europe  and  of  South  America.  In  certain  places,  the  teeth,  tinged  with 
iron,  become  of  a  beautiful  blue  when  heated,  forming  what  is  called  the 
oriental  turquoise. 


FAMILY  IL 

PACHYDERMATA  ORDINARIA, 

Or  the  ordinary  Pachydermata,  have  four,  three  or  two  toes. 

Those  in  which  the  toes  make  even  numbers  have  feet  somewhat 
cleft,  and  approximate  to  the  Ruminantia  in  various  parts  of  the 
skeleton,  and  even  in  the  complication  of  the  stomach.  They  are 
usually  divided  into  two  genera. 

Hippopotamus,  Lin. 

These  animals  have  a  very  massive  and  naked  body;  very  short  legs;  the 
belly  reaching  to  the  ground;  an  enormous  head  terminated  by  a  large  inflat- 
ed muzzle,  which  encloses  the  apparatus  of  their  large  front  teeth;  the  tail 
short;  the  ears  and  eyes  small.  They  hve  in  rivers,  upon  roots  and  other 
vegetable  substances,  and  exhibit  much  ferocity  and  stupidity.  One  species 
only  is  known. 

H.  amphibius.  (The  Hippopotamus. )  Now  confined  to  the  rivers  of  the 
middle  and  south  of  Africa. 

Sus,  Lin. 
Hogs,  properly  so  called,  have  twenty-four  or  twenty-eight  grinders,  of 
which  the  posterior  are  oblong  with  tuberculous  crowns,  and  the  anterior 
more  or  less  compressed,  and  six  incisors  in  each  jaw. 

S.  scropha,  L.  The  Wild  Hog,  which  is  the  parent  stock  of  our  Domestic 
Hog  and  its  varieties,  has  prismatic  tusks  that  curve  outwards  and  slightly 
upwards;  the  body  short  and  thick;  straight  ears;  the  hair  bristled  and  black; 
the  young  ones  striped  black  and  white.  It  does  great  injury  to  fields  in 
the  vicinity  of  forests,  by  tearing  up  the  ground  in  search  of  roots.  Natural- 
ists now  separate  from  the  Hogs  the  subgenera  Phacockaerus,  and  Dicotyle  or 
the  Peccaries. 

Here  may  come  a  genus  now  unknown  in  the  living  creation, 
which  we  have  discovered,  and  named 


PACHYDERMATA.  109 

Anoplotherium. 
It  presents  the  most  singular  affinities  with  the  various  tribes  of  thePachy- 
dermata,  and  approximates  in  some  respects  to  the  order  of  the  Ruminantia. 
The  bones  of  this  genus  have  hitherto  only  been  found  in  the  gypsum 
quarries  near  Paris.     We  have  already  ascertained  five  species. 

The  ordinary  Pachydermata  which  have  not  cloven  feet,  compre- 
hend, in  the  first  place,  three  genera,  very  similar  to  each  other  in 
their  grinders,  but  their  incisors  vary. 

Rhinoceros,  Lin. 
The  species  of  this  genus,  in  this  paalicular,  even  vary  among'  themselves. 
They  are  larg-e  animals;  each  foot  is  divided  into  three  toes,  and  the  bones 
of  the  nose,  which  are  very  thick  and  moulded  into  a  sort  of  arch,  support 
a  sohd  horn  which  adheres  tathe  skin,  and  is  composed  of  a  fibrous  and 
horny  substance,  resembUng'  ag'glutinated  hairs.  They  are  naturally  stupid 
and  ferocious,  frequent  marshy  places,  and  feed  on  herbs  and  branches  of 
trees.    They  are  found  in  India,  Java,  Africa  and  Sumatra. 

Rh.  indicus,  Cuv.  (The  Rhinoceros  of  India.)  It  has  but  one  horn,  and 
the  skin  is  remarkable  for  the  deep  folds  into  which  it  is  thrown  behind  and 
across  the  shoulders,  and  before  and  across  the  thighs.  It  inhabits  the  East 
Indies,  and  chiefly  beyond  the  Ganges. 

Bh.  afncanus,  Cnv.  (The  Rhlnocei-os  of  Africa. )  Furnished  with  two 
horns;  has  no  fold  of  of  the  skin,  nor  any  incisor  teeth,  its  molars  occupying 
nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  jaw. 

Various  fossil  species  are  found  in  Siberia,  Tuscany  and  Germany. 

Hyrax,  Herm. 

The  Damans,  as  they  are  termed,  have  long  been  placed  among  the  Roden- 
tia,  on  account  of  their  small  size;  if,  however,  we  examine  them  closely,  we 
shall  find,  the  horn  excepted,  that  they  are  Rhinoceroses  in  miniature,  at  least 
they  have  similar  molars;  but  their  upper  jaw  is  fiamished  with  two  strong 
incisors  curved  downwards,  and  at  an  early  age  with  two  very  small  canini; 
the  lower  one  has  four  incisors,  but  no  canini. 

Paxjeotherium,  Cuv. 

Tins  is  also  a  lost  genus,  with  the  same  giinders  as  the  two  preceding,  six 
incisors,  and  two  canini  in  each  jaw,  like  the  Tapirs,  and  three  visible  toes 
to  each  foot;  they  had  also,  like  the  Tapirs,  a  short  fleshy  proboscis.  We 
discovered  the  bones  of  this  genus  pele-mele  with  those  of  the  Anoplothe- 
rium in  the  gypsum  quarries  near  Paris.  They  also  exist  in  many  other 
parts  of  France.     Eleven  or  twelve  species  are  known  already. 

LOPHIODON,  Cuv. 
Is  another  lost  genus,  which  appears  to  be  closely  allied  to  the  preceding 


110  MAMMALIA. 

one.     Ten  or  twelve  species  have  been  extracted  from  our  old  fresh  water 
formations,  the  same  in  which  the  Palaeotherium  is  found. 
To  these  genera  should  succeed  the  genus 

Tapir,  Lin. 
The  nose  resembles  a  small  fleshy  proboscis;  there  are  four  toes  to  the  four 
feet,  and  three  to  the  hind  ones.    For  a  long  time  but  a  single  species  was 
known, 

T.  americanus,  L.  (The  American  Tapir.)  Size  of  a  small  Ass;  skin 
brow^n  and  nearly  naked;  tail  moderate;  neck  fleshy,  forming  a  sort  of  crest 
on  the  nape .  Common  in  wet  places,  and  along  the  rivers  of  the  warm  parts 
of  South  America.  The  flesh  is  eaten.  Within  a  few  years  a  second  spe- 
cies has  been  discovered  in  the  eastern  continent. 

Fossil  Tapirs  are  also  scattered  throughout  Europe;  and  among  others  is 
a  ^gantic  species,  which  in  size  must  have  nearly  equalled  the  Elephant; 
it  is  the  Tap.  giganteus,  Cuv. 


FAMILY  III. 

SOLIPEDES. 

The  Solipedes  are  quadrupeds  which  have  only  one  apparent  toe, 
and  a  single  hoof  to  each  foot,  although  under  the  skin,  on  each 
side  of  their  metatarsus  and  metacarpus,  there  are  spurs  represent- 
ing two  lateral  toes.     One  genus  only  is  known,  that  of 

Equus,  Lin. 
The  Hwse  has  six  incisors  in  each  jaw.  The  male  has  also  two  small  ad- 
ditional canini  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  sometimes  in  both,  which  are  almost 
always  wanting  in  the  female.  Between  these  canini  and  the  first  molar  is 
that  unoccupied  space  which  corresponds  to  the  angle  of  the  lips,  where  the 
bit  is  placed,  by  which  alone,  Man  has  been  enabled  to  subdue  and  tame  this 
powerful  animal. 

E.  caballus,  L.  (The  Horse.)  This  noble  associate  of  Man,  in  the  chase, 
in  war,  and  in  the  works  of  agriculture,  the  arts  and  commerce,  is  the  most 
important  and  carefully  attended  of  all  the  animals  he  has  subdued.  It  does 
not  seem  to  erist  in  a  wild  state  at  the  present  time;  those  places  excepted, 
where  Horses  formerly  domesticated  have  been  set  at  hberty,  as  in  Tartary 
and  America,  where  they  Uve  in  troops,  each  of  which  is  led  and  defended 
by  an  old  male. 

E.hemionus.  (The  Dzigguetai.)  A  species  which,as  to  its  proportions, 
is  intermediate  between  the  horse  and  the  Ass,  and  lives  in  troops  in  the 


PACHYDERMATA.  Ill 

sandy  deserts  of  central  Asia.  It  is  of  an  isabella  or  cream  colour,  with  a 
black  mane,  and  a  dorsal  line  of  the  same  colour;  the  tail  is  terminated  by  a 
black  tuft.     It  is  probably  the  Wild  Mule  of  the  ancients. 

E.  asinus.  (The  Ass. )  Known  by  its  long'  ears,  the  tuft  which  termi- 
nates the  tail,  and  the  black  cross  on  the  shoulders,  which  is  the  first  indi- 
cation of  the  stripes  which  distingxiish  the  following  species.  Originally 
from  the  great  deserts  of  central  Asia,  it  is  still  to  be  found  there  in  a  wild 
state,  and  in  innumerable  troops,  ranging  from  north  to  soutli  according 
to  the  season;  hence  it  thrives  but  poorly  in  the  more  northern  cHmates. 
The  hoarseness  of  its  voice,  or  bray,  depends  upon  two  small  pecuhar  cavi- 
ties situated  at  the  bottom  of  the  larynx. 

E.  zebra.  (The  Zebra.)  Nearly  the  same  form  as  the  Ass;  the  whole 
animal  regularly  marked  with  black  and  white  transverse  stripes,  originally 
from  the  whole  south  of  Africa. 

E.  guaccha.  (The  Couagga.)  Resembles  the  Horse  more  than  the  Zebra, 
but  comes  from  the  same  country.  The  hair  on  the  neck  and  shoulders  is 
brown,  with  whitish  transverse  stripes;  the  croup  is  of  a  reddish  grey;  tail 
and  legs  whitish.  The  name  is  expressive  of  its  voice,  which  resembles  the 
barking  of  a  Dog. 

E.  montanus.  (The  Onagga. )  An  African  species,  smaller  than  the  Ass, 
but  having  the  beautiful  form  of  the  Couagga;  its  colour  is  a  very  light  bay, 
with  black  stripes,  alternately  wider  and  narrower,  on  the  head,  neck  and 
body.    Those  behind  slant  obliquely  forwards;  legs  and  t£ul  white. 


ORDER  VIII. 

RUMINANTIA. 

The  term  Ruminantia  indicates  the  singular  faculty  possessed  by 
these  animals  of  masticating  their  food  a  second  time,  by  bringing 
it  back  to  the  mouth  after  a  first  deglutition.  This  faculty  depends 
upon  the  structure  of  their  stomachs,  of  which  they  always  have 
four,  the  three  first  being  so  disposed  that  the  food  may  enter  into 
either  of  them,  the  oesophagus  terminating  at  the  point  of  commu- 
nication. 

Camelus,  Lin. 
The  Camels  approximate  to  the  preceding  order  rather  more  than  the 
others.     They  not  only  always  have  canini  in  both  jaws,  but  they  also  have 
two  pointed  teeth  implanted  in  the  incisive  bone,  six  inferior  incisors  and 
from  eighteeji  to  twenty  molars  only;  peculiarities,  which,  of  all  the  Kumi- 


112  MAMMALIA. 

nantia,  they  alone  possess.  Instead  of  the  large  hoof  flattened  on  its  Inter- 
nal side  which  envelopes  the  whole  inferior  portion  of  each  toe,  and  which 
determines  the  figure  of  the  common  cloven-foot,  they  have  but  one  small 
one,  which  only  adheres  to  the  last  phalanx,  and  is  symmetrically  formed 
like  the  hoofs  of  the  Pachydermata. 

Cameitis,  Cuv. 

Camels,  properly  so  called,  have  the  two  toes  united  below, nearly  to  the 
point,  by  a  common  sole,  and  the  back  furnished  with  lumps  of  fat.  They 
are  large  animals  of  the  eastern  continent,  of  which  two  species  are  known, 
both  completely  reduced  to  a  domestic  state. 

C.  hactrianus.  (The  Two-Humped  Camel.)  Originally  from  central 
Asia,  and  which  descends  to  the  south  much  less  than  the 

C.  dromedarius.  (The  One-Humped  Camel. )  Which  has  spread  from 
Arabia  into  all  the  north  of  Africa,  a  great  part  of  Syria,  Persia,  &c. 

AUCHENIA,  lUig. 
In  the  Lamas  the  two  toes  are  separate;  they  are  without  humps.     But 
two  distinct  species  are  known,  the  Lama  and  the  Paco,  both  from  the  wes- 
tern continent,  and  much  smaller  than  the  two  preceding  ones. 

MoscHus,  Lin. 
The  Musks  are  much  less  anomalous  than  the  Camels,  differing  from  the 
ordinary  Ruminantia  only  in  the  absence  of  horns,  in  having  a  long  canine 
tooth  on  each  side  of  the  upper  jaw,  which  in  the  male  issues  from  the 
mouth,  and  finally  in  having  a  slender  peronseus,  which  is  not  found  even 
in  the  Camel.    These  animals  are  remarkably  light  and  elegant. 

M.  moschiferus,  L.;  Buff.  (The  Musk.)  This  is  the  most  celebrated 
species,  and  the  size  of  a  goat,  has  scarcely  any  tail,  and  is  completely 
covered  with  hairs  so  coarse  and  brittle  that  they  might  be  termed  spines. 

All  the  rest  of  the  Ruminantia,  the  males  at  least,  have  two  horns, 
that  is  to  say,  two  prominences  of  the  frontal  bones  which  are  not 
found  in  any  other  family  of  animals. 

In  some,  these  prominences  are  covered  with  an  elastic  sheath 
composed  as  if  with  agglutinated  hairs,  which  increases  by  layers 
and  during  life;  the  name  ofhorn  is  applied  to  the  substance  of  this 
sheath,  and  the  sheath  itself  is  called  the  corne  creuse  or  horn  mould. 
The  prominence  it  envelopes  grows  with  it,  and  never  falls.  Such 
are  the  horns  of  Oxen^  Sheep,  Goats  and  Antelopes. 

In  others,  the  prominences  are  only  covered  with  a  hairy  skin, 
continuous  with  that  of  the  head;  nor  do  the  prominences  fall,  those 
of  the  Giraffe  excepted. 


RUMINANTIA.  113 

Finally,  in  the  genus  of  the  Stags,  the  prominences  covered  for  a 
time  with  a  hairy  skin,  similar  to  that  on  the  rest  of  the  head,  have  at 
their  base  a  ring  of  bony  tubercles,  which,  as  they  enlarge,  compress 
and  obliterate  the  vessels  of  that  skin.  It  becomes  dry  and  is  thrown 
oif;  the  bony  prominences,  being  laid  bare,  at  the  expiration  of  a 
certain  period  separate  from  the  cranium  to  which  they  were  at- 
tached; they  fall  and  the  animal  remains  defenceless.  Others, 
however,  are  re-produced  generally  larger  than  before,  and  destined 
to  undergo  the  same  fate.  These  horns,  purely  osseous,  and  sub- 
ject to  periodical  changes,  are  styled  antlers. 

Cervus,  Lin. 

The  Stags,  consequently,  are  the  only  Ruminantia  which  have  heads  armed 
with  antlersj  the  females,  however,  the  Rein-Deer  alone  excepted,  are  al- 
ways without  them.  The  substance  of  these  antlers,  when  completely 
developed,  is  that  of  a  dense  bone,  without  pores  or  sinus. 

C.  alces,  L.  (The  Moose.)  As  large  as  a  Horse  and  sometimes  larger; 
stands  very  high;  the  muzzle  cartilaginous  and  inflated;  a  sort  of  goitre,  or 
pendulous  swelling,  variously  shaped,  under  the  throat;  hair  always  very 
stiff*  and  of  a  more  or  less  deep  ash-colour.  Their  horns  increase  with  age 
so  as  to  weigh  fifty  or  sixty  pounds,  and  to  have  fourteen  branches  to  each 
horn.  The  Moose  lives  in  small  troops,  and  inhabits  the  marshy  forests  of 
the  north  of  both  continents.     Its  skin  is  valuable  for  various  purposes. 

C.  tarandus,  L.,  Buff".  (The  Rein-Deer.)  Size  of  a  Stag,  but  has  shorter 
and  stouter  legs;  both  sexes  have  antlers,  divided  into  several  branches,  at 
first  slender  and  pointed,  and  terminating  by  age  in  broad  denticulated 
palms.  There  are  various  species  of  this  genus,  such  as  the  Fallow-Deer, 
Common  Stag,  Vir^nia  Deer,  Axis,  Roebuck,  &c. 

Camelopardalis,  Lin. 
The  Giraffe  is  characterized  in  both  sexes  by  conical  honis,  always  covered 
with  a  hairy  skin,  and  which  are  never  shed.  On  the  middle  of  the  chan- 
frin  is  a  tubercle  or  third  horn,  broader  and  much  shorter,  but  likewise  ar- 
ticulated by  a  suture.  It  is  moreover  one  of  the  most  remarkable  animals 
in  existence,  from  the  length  of  its  neck  and  the  disproportioned  height  of 
its  fore  legs.     Only  one  species  is  known, 

C.girafa,  F.  Guv.  (The  Giraffe.)  It  is  confined  to  the  deserts  of  Af- 
rica, and  has  short  grey  hair  sprinkled  with  fawn  coloured  angular  spots, 
and  a  small  fawn  coloured  and  grey  mane.  It  is  the  taUest  of  all  animals, 
for  its  head  is  frequently  elevated  eighteen  feet  from  the  ground.  Its  dis- 
position is  gentle,  and  it  feeds  on  leaves.    The 

RUxMINANTIA  WITH  HOIXOW  HORNS 
Are  more  numerous  than  the  others,  and  we  have  been  compelled 
P 


114  MAMMALIA. 

to  divide  them  into  genera  from  characters  of  but  little  importance, 
drawn  from  the  form  of  their  horns  and  the  proportions  of  their 
different  parts.  To  these  M.  Geoffroy  has  advantageously  added 
those  afforded  by  the  substance  of  the  frontal  prominence  or  the 
bony  nucleus  of  the  horn. 

Antilope. 
The  substance  of  the  bony  nucleus  of  the  horns  of  the  Antelopes  is  solid, 
and  without  pores  or  sinus,  like  the  antlers  of  the  Stag-.  They  resemble 
the  Stags  moreover  in  the  lightness  of  their  figure  and  their  svi^iftness.  It 
is  a  very  numerous  genus,  which  naturalists  have  divided,  and  principaUy 
according  to  the  form  of  the  horns. 

The  most  remarkable  species  are  the  Gazelk,  Springbuck,  Plunging  An- 
telope, Rock-Springer,  Mgazel,  Chamois,  Gnou,  &c. 

The  three  remaining  genera  have  the  bony  core  of  the  horns 
principally  occupied  with  cells,  which  communicate  with  the  frontal 
sinuses.  The  direction  of  their  horns  furnishes  the  characters  of 
the  divisions.. 

Capra,  Lin. 

The  horns  of  the  Goats  are  directed  upwards  and  backwards;  the  chin  gene- 
rally furnished  with  a  long  beard,  and  the  chanfrin  almost  always  concave. 

C.  asgragus,  Gm.  (The  Wild  Goat.)  Appears  to  be  the  stock  of  all  the 
varieties  of  our  Domestic  Goat.  It  is  distinguished  by  its  horns,  trenchant 
in  front,  veiy  large  in  the  male;  short,  or  altogether  wanting  in  the  female, 
which  is  also  sometimes  the  case  in  the  two  species  of  Ibex.  It  lives  in  herds 
on  the  mountains  of  Persia  (where  it  is  known  by  the  name  of  paseng),  and 
perhaps  on  those  of  other  countries,  even  in  the  Alps.  The  oriental  bezoar 
is  a  concretion  found  in  its  intestines. 

C.  ibex,  L.  (The  Ibex.)  Large  horns,  square  in  front,  marked  with 
transverse  and  prominent  knots.  It  inhabits  the  most  elevated  summits  of 
the  highest  ranges  of  moimtains  in  the  whole  of  the  eastern  continent. 

Ovis,  Lin. 

The  horns  of  Sheep  are  dii'ected  backwards,  and  then  incline  spirally,  more 
or  less  forwards:  the  chanfrin  is  more  or  less  convex,  and  there  is  no  beard. 

Ov.  ammon,  L.  (The  Argali  of  Siberia.)  The  male  has  very  large  horns, 
with  the  base  triangular,  angles  rounded,  flattened  in  front,  and  striated 
transversely;  those  of  the  female  are  compressed  and  falciform.  To  this 
genus  belong  the  Mouflims  of  America,  Africa  and  Sardinia.  This  animal 
inhabits  the  mountains  of  all  Asia,  and  attains  to  the  size  of  the  Fallow  Deer 

It  is  from  the  Mouflon  or  the  Argali  that  we  are  supposed  to  derive  the 
innumerable  races  of  our  woolly  animals,  which,  next  to  the  Dog,  are  most 
subject  to  vary. 


RUMINANTIA.  115 

Bos,  Lin. 
The  horns  of  the  Ox  are  directed  laterally,  inclining  upwards  or  forwards, 
in  the  form  of  a  crescent;  it  is  a  large  animal,  with  a  broad  muzzle;  short 
and  thick  body,  and  stout  legs. 

£•  iaurus,  L.  (The  Common  Ox. )  Its  specific  characters  are  a  flat  fore- 
head, longer  than  broad,  and  round  horns,  placed  at  the  extremities  of  the 
salient  line  or  ridge  which  separates  the  forehead  from  the  occiput. 

B.  urus,  Gm.  (The  Aurochs.)  Generally,  but  erroneously,  considered 
as  the  wild  stock  of  our  horned  cattle.  It  is  distinguished  from  them  by 
its  convex  forehead,  which  is  wider  than  it  is  high,  by  the  insertion  of  its 
horns  below  the  occipital  crest,  by  the  length  of  its  legs,  by  an  additional 
pair  of  ribs,  by  a  sort  of  curly  wool,  which  covers  the  head  and  neck  of  the 
bull,  forming  a  short  beard  under  the  throat,  and  by  its  grunting  voice.  It 
is  a  savage  animal  that  has  now  taken  refuge  in  the  great  marshy  forests  of 
Lithuania,  of  the  Krapacs  and  of  Caucasus,  but  which  formerly  inhabited 
all  the  temperate  parts  of  Europe.  It  is  the  largest  quadruped  proper  to 
Europe. 

B.  bison,  L.  (The  BufFaloe  or  Bison  of  America. )  The  bony  head  very 
similar  to  that  of  the  Aurochs,  and  covered  like  it,  the  neck  and  shoulders 
also,  with  frizzled  wool,  which  becomes  very  long  in  winter;  its  legs  and 
tail  are  shorter.     Inhabits  all  the  temperate  parts  of  North  America. 

B-  bubalus,  L.  (The  Buffalo.)  Originally  from  India,  and  brought  into 
Egypt,  Greece  and  Italy  during  the  middle  century;  has  a  convex  forehead 
higher  than  wide,  the  horns  directed  sideways,  and  marked  in  front  by  a 
longitudinal  ridge.  This  animal  is  subdued  with  difficulty,  but  is  extremely 
powerful,  and  prefers  the  marshy  grounds,  and  coarse  plants  on  which  the 
Ox  could  not  live.  Its  milk  is  good,  and  the  hide  very  strong,  but  the  flesh 
is  not  esteemed. 

There  is  a  race  of  them  in  India,  whose  horns  include  a  space  of  ten  feet 
from  lip  to  tip :  it  is  called  ^mi  in  Hindostan. 

B.  grunniens.  Pall.  (The  Yack.)  A  small  species,  with  the  tail  com- 
pletely covered  with  long  hairs  like  that  of  the  Horse,  and  a  long  mane  on 
the  back.  This  animal,  of  which  ^lian  has  spoken,  is  originally  from  the 
mountains  of  Thibet.  Its  tail  constitutes  the  standards  still  used  by  the 
Turks  to  distinguish  the  superior  officers. 

B.  moschatus,  Gm.  (The  Musk  Ox  of  America.)  The  horns  approxi- 
mated and  similarly  directed,  but  meeting  on  the  forehead  in  a  straight  line; 
those  of  the  female  are  smaller  and  more  widely  separatedf  the  forehead  is 
convex,  and  the  end  of  the  muzzle  furnished  with  hairs. 


116  MAMMALIA. 

ORDER  IX. 
CETACEA. 

The  Cetacea  are  mammiferous  animals  without  hind  feet;  their 
trunk  is  continued  by  a  thick  tail,  terminating  in  an  horizontal,  car- 
tilaginous fin,  and  their  head  is  united  to  the  trunk  by  a  neck,  so 
thick  and  short,  that  no  diminution  of  its  diameter  can  be  perceived, 
and  composed  of  very  slender  cervical  vertebrae,  which  are  partly 
anchylosed  or  soldered  together.  The  first  bones  of  the  anterior 
extremities  are  shortened,  and  the  succeeding  ones  flattened  and  en- 
veloped in  a  tendinous  membrane,  which  reduces  them  to  true  fins. 
Their  external  form  is  altogether  that  of  Fishes,  the  tail  fin  excepted, 
which  in  the  latter  is  vertical.  They  always  therefore  remain  in  the 
water;  but  as  they  respire  by  lungs,  they  are  compelled  to  return 
frequently  to  its  surface  to  take  in  fresh  supplies  of  air.  Independ- 
ently of  this,  their  warm  blood,  their  ears,  with  external,  though 
small,  openings,  their  viviparous  production,  the  mammae  with  which 
they  suckle  their  young,  and  all  the  details  of  their  anatomy  suffi- 
ciently distinguish  them  from  Fishes. 

To  the  genera  of  the  Cetacea  hitherto  admitted,  we  add  others 
formerly  confounded  with  the  Morses. 

FAMILY  I. 

CETACEA  HERBIVORA. 

The  teeth  of  Herbivorous  Cetacea  have  flat  crowns;  this  determines 
their  mode  of  life,  and  the  latter  induces  them  to  leave  the  water  fre- 
quently, to  seek  for  pasture  on  shore.  They  have  two  raammaB  on 
the  breast,  and  hairy  mustachios;  two  circumstances  which,  when 
observed  from  a  distance  as  they  raise  the  anterior  part  of  the  body 
vertically  from  the  water,  may  give  them  some  resemblance  to  hu- 
man beings,  and  have  probably  occasioned  those  fabulous  accounts 
of  Tritons,  and  Sirens  which  some  travellers  pretend  to  have  seen. 

Manatcs,  Cuv. 
The  Lamantins,  or  rather  the  Manati,  have  an  oblong  body,  terminated  by 
an  elongated  oval  fin;  the  grinders,  eight  in  number  throughout,  have  a 


CETACEA.  117 

square  crown,  marked  with  two  transverse  elevations.  Vestiges  of  nails 
are  discoverable  on  the  edg-es  of  their  fins,  which  they  employ  with  tolera- 
ble dexterity  in  carrying  their  young-,  and  in  creeping-;  hence  the  comparison 
of  these  organs  witli  hands,  and  the  name  of  Manatus  applied  to  the  animal, 
of  which  Lamantin  is  a  coiTiiption.  From  their  manner  of  living,  they  are 
also  called  Sea  Cows,  Mermaids,  &c. 

They  arc  found  near  the  mouths  of  rivers  in  the  hottest  pai-ts  of  the  At- 
lantic Ocean,  and  it  appears  that  those  of  the  American  rivers  are  specifically 
different  from  those  of  Africa.  They  grow  to  the  lengtli  of  fifteen  feet. 
Their  flesh  is  used  as  food. 

IIalicore,  Illig.(l) 

Grinders  composed  of  two  cones  laterally  united;  the  teeth  implanted  in  the 
incisive  bone  arc  permanent,  and  increase  to  such  an  extent  as  to  become 
true  pointed  tusks,  but  covered  by  tliick  fleshy  lips,  bristled  with  musta- 
chios.  The  body  is  elongated,  and  the  tail  terminated  by  a  crescent-shaped 
fin.     One  species  only  is  known,  the 

JIal.  dugong;  StJ-en,-  Sea  Cow,^c.  (The  Dugong.)  It  inhabits  tlxe  Indian 
Ocean,  and  is  frequently  confounded  by  travellers  with  the  Manatus. 

Stellekus,  Cuv. 
The  Stelleri  appear  to  have  but  a  single  compound  grinder  on  each  side, 
with  a  flat  crown,  and  bristled  with  plates  of  enamel.  Their  fins  have  not 
even  the  little  nails  observed  on  those  of  the  Manatus.  According  to  Stel- 
ler,  the  first,  and  hitherto  the  only  one  who  has  described  them,  their  sto- 
mach also  is  much  more  simple. 

One  species  only  is  known,  wliich  is  confined  to  the  north  part  of  tlic 
Pacific  Ocean. 


FAMILY  II. 

CETACEA  ORDINARIA. 

The  Ordinary  Cetacea  are  distinguished  from  the  preceding  by 
the  singular  apparatus  from  which  they  have  received  the  name  of 
Blowers.  As  a  large  quantity  of  water  passes  into  their  huge  mouths 
along  with  their  prey,  some  way  was  necessary  by  which  they  could 
get  rid  of  it;  accordingly,  it  passes  through  the  nostrils  by  means  of 
a  peculiar  disposition  of  the  velum  palati,  and  is  accumulated  in  a 
sac  situated  at  the  external  orifice  of  the  cavity  of  the  nose,  whence, 


(1)  Ilalicore,  Maidoftlic  Sea. 


118  MAMMALIA. 

by  the  compression  of  powerful  muscles,  it  is  violently  expelled 
through  a  narrow  opening  on  the  top  of  the  head.  It  is  in  this  way 
they  produce  those  jets  d'eau  observed  by  navigators  at  so  great  a 
distance.  Their  nostrils,  continually  bathed  in  salt  water,  could  not 
be  lined  with  a  membrane  sufficiently  delicate  to  enable  them  to  de- 
tect odours,  and  accordingly,  they  have  none  of  those  projecting 
laminae  found  in  the  nasal  cavities  of  other  animalsj  the  olfactory 
nerve  is  deficient  in  several,  and  if  there  be  any  which  enjoy  the 
sense  of  smell,  it  must  be  in  a  very  slight  degree.  Their  larynx,  of  a 
pyramidal  form,  penetrates  into  the  posterior  nares  to  receive  air 
and  conduct  it  to  the  lungs,  without  compelling  the  animal  to  raise 
its  head  and  throat  above  the  water  for  that  purpose:  there  are  no 
salient  laminae  in  the  glottis,  and  the  voice  is  reduced  to  a  simple 
lowing.  They  have  no  vestige  of  hairs,  but  their  whole  body  is 
covered  with  a  smooth  skin,  under  which  is  that  thick  layer  of  blub- 
ber abounding  in  oil,  the  principal  object  for  which  are  they  pursued. 

The  stomach  is  divided  into  five  and  sometimes  into  seven  distinct 
sacs;  instead  of  one  single  spleen,  they  have  several,  small  and  glo- 
bular; those  which  are  possessed  of  teeth,  have  them  all  conical  and 
alike;  they  do  not  chew  their  food,  but  swallow  it  rapidly. 

Two  small  bones,  suspended  in  the  flesh,  are  the  only  vestiges  of 
posterior  extremities. 

Several  have  a  vertical  fin  on  the  back,  composed  of  a  tendinous 
substance,  but  unsupported  by  bone.  Their  eyes,  flattened  in  front, 
have  a  thick  and  solid  sclerotica;  the  teguments  of  the  tongue  are 
soft  and  smooth. 

They  may  be  again  divided  into  two  small  tribes:  those  in  which 
the  head  bears  the  usual  proportion  to  the  body,  and  those  in  which 
it  is  immoderately  large.  The  first  comprehends  the  Dolphins  and 
the  Narwhals. 

Delphintjs,  Lin. 

The  Dolphins  have  teeth  in  both  jaws,  all  simple,  and  almost  always  conical. 
They  are  the  most  carnivorous,  and,  in  proportion  to  their  size,  the  most  cruel 
of  their  order. 

D£LFHiyu8,  Cuv. 
The  Dolphins,  properly  so  called,  have  a  convex  forehead,  and  the  muz- 
zle forming  a  kind  of  rostrum,  or  snout,  in  front  of  the  head,  more  slender 
than  the  rest. 


CETACEA.  119 

Phocjena,  Cuv. 
The  Porpoisesi,!)  have  no  rostrum,  but  a  short  and  uniformly  convex 
muzzle. 

MoNODON,  Lin. 
The  Narwhals  have  no  teeth  properly  speaking",  but  mere  long,  straight 
and  pointed  tusks,  implanted  in  the  intermaxillary  bone,  and  directed  in 
tlie  hne  of  the  axis  of  the  body.  The  form  of  their  body  and  that  of  their 
head  greatly  resemble  that  of  the  Porpoises.  One  species  only  is  well 
known,  the 

M.  monoceros,  L.  (Tlie  Narwhal.)  The  tusk  of  this  animal,  which  is 
spirally  furrowed  and  sometimes  ten  feet  in  length,  was  for  a  long  time 
called  the  horn  of  the  Unicorn.  It  has,  it  is  true,  the  germs  of  two  tusks, 
but  it  is  very  seldom  that  both  become  equally  developed.  That  of  the  left 
side  usually  attains  its  full  growth,  while  the  other  always  remains  hidden 
in  its  alveolus. 

The  other  Cetacea  have  the  head  so  large  as  to  constitute  one 
third  or  one  half  of  the  length  of  the  whole  body;  but  neither  the 
cranium  nor  the  brain  participate  in  this  disproportion,  which  is 
altogether  owing  to  an  enormous  development  of  the  bones  of  the 
face. 

Physeter,  Lin. 
The  Cachahts(2)  are  Cetacea  with  a  very  voluminous  head,  excessively  en- 
larged, particularly  in  front,  in  whose  upper  jaw  there  is  neither  whalebone 
nor  tooth,  or  if  any,  very  small,  and  not  projecting;  the  lower  jaw,  narrow, 
elongated,  and  corresponding  to  a  furrow  in  the  upper  one,  is  armed  on 
each  side  with  a  range  of  cylindrical  or  conical  teeth,  which,  when  the  mouth 
is  closed,  enter  into  cori'esponding  cavities  in  the  upper  jaw.  The  supe- 
rior portion  of  their  enormous  head  consists  almost  entirely  of  large  cavities, 
separated  and  covered  by  cartilages,  and  filled  with  an  oil  which  becomes 
fixed  as  it  cools,  well  known  in  commerce  by  the  name  of  spermaceti,  a 
substance  for  which  they  are  principally  sought;  the  body  not  having  much 
fat,  and  consequently  yielding  but  little  oil.  These  cavities,  liowever,  are 
very  distinct  from  the  true  cranium,  which  is  rather  small,  is  placed  under 
their  posterior  portion,  and  contains  the  brain  as  usual. 

The  odorous  substance,  named  ambergris,  appears  to  be  a  concretion 


(1)  Poi-poises  from  jDorcusjoisas,  hog-fish. 

(2)  PA?/sefer,  as  well  as  pAysa/us,  signifies  i/oioer.  Cachalot  is  the  name 
used  by  the  Biscayans;  from  cachau,  which  in  the  Cantabrian  dialect  means 
tooth. 


120  MAMMALIA. 

formed  in  the  intestines  of  the  Cachalot,  particularly  during  certsun  states 
of  disease. 
The  species  of  the  Cachalots  are  far  from  being  well  ascertained. 

Baljena,  Lin. 

The  Whales  are  equal  in  size  to  the  Cachalots,  and  in  the  proportional 
magn-tude  of  the  head,  although  the  latter  is  not  so  much  enlai*ged  in  front; 
but  they  have  no  teeth.  The  two  sides  of  their  upper  jaw,  which  is  keel- 
shaped,  or  furnished  with  thin,  compact,  transverse  laminse,  called  whale- 
bone, formed  of  a  kind  of  fibrous  horn,  fringed  at  the  edges,  which  serve  to 
retain  the  little  animals  on  which  these  enormous  Cetacea  feed.  Their 
lower  jaw,  supported  by  two  osseous  branches  arched  externally  and  to- 
wards the  summit,  and  completely  unarmed,  lodges  a  very  thick  and  fleshy 
tongue,  and  when  the  mouth  is  closed,  envelopes  the  internal  part  of  the 
upper  jaw,  and  the  whalebone  with  which  it  is  invested.  These  organs  do 
not  allow  whales  to  feed  on  such  large  animals  as  their  size  might  induce 
us  to  imagine.  They  live  on  fish,  but  principally  on  worms,  Mollusca,  and 
Zoophytes,  selecting,  it  is  said,  the  very  smallest,  which  become  entangled 
in  the  filaments  of  the  whalebone. 

Bal.  mysticetus,  L.  (The  Common  Whale.)  It  has  long  been  consid- 
ered the  largest  of  all  animals;  but  from  the  late  observations  of  captain 
Scoresby,  it  appears  that  it  scarcely  ever  exceeds  seventy  feet,  a  length 
frequently  surpassed  by  the  wrinkle-bellied  whales.  It  has  no  dorsal  fin. 
To  procure  its  fat  or  blubber,  which  is  sometimes  several  feet  in  thickness, 
and  contains  immense  quantities  of  oil,  whole  fleets  are  annually  equipped. 
Formerly  sufficiently  bold  to  venture  into  our  seas,  it  has  gradually  retired 
to  the  extreme  North,  where  the  number  is  daily  diminishing.  Besides  oil, 
it  produces  black  and  flexible  whalebone,  eight  or  ten  feet  in  length,  each 
individual  having  from  eight  to  nine  hundred  strips  on  each  side  of  the 
palate.  One  hundred  and  twenty  tuns  of  oil  are  obtained  from  a  single 
whale.  Shell-fish  attach  themselves  to  its  skin,  and  multiply  there  as  on  a 
rock,  and  some  of  the  Balanus  family  even  penetrate  into  it. 


OF  THE  OVIPAROUS  VERTEBRATA. 

Although  the  three  classes  of  the  Oviparous  Vertebrata  differ 
greatly  from  each  other  in  their  quantum  of  respiration,  and  in  all 
that  relates  to  it,  viz.  the  power  of  motion  and  the  energy  of  the 
senses,  they  present  several  common  characters  when  opposed  to 
the  Mammalia,  or  Viviparous  Vertebrata. 


OVIPARA.  121 

Oviparous  production  consists,  essentially,  in  this — the  young  ani 
mal  is  not  attached  to  the  parietes  of  the  oviduct,  but  remains  sepa- 
rated from  it  by  its  most  external  envelope.  Its  aliment  is  prepared 
before  hand,  and  enclosed  in  a  sac  attached  to  its  intestinal  canal; 
this  is  what  is  called  the  vitellus,  or  yolkof  eggr,  of  which  the  young 
animal  is  a  sort  of  appendage,  at  first  imperceptible,  which  is  n/wjr- 
ished  and  augmented  by  absorbing  the  fluid  of  tliat  yolk.  Such  of 
the  Ovipara  as  breathe  with  lungs  have  the  egg  furnished  with  a 
highly  vascular  membrane,  which  appears  to  serve  for  the  purposes 
of  respiration;  it  is  connected  with  the  bladder,  and  is  analogous  to 
the  allantoid  of  the  Mammalia.  It  is  neither  found  in  Fishes  nor  in 
the  Batrachians,  which  latter,  when  young,  respire,  like  Fishes,  by 
branchiae. 


CLASS  IL 


AVES. 

Birds  are  Oviparous  Vertebrata,  with  double  systems  of  circula- 
tion and  respiration,  organized  for  flight. 

Their  lungs,  undivided  and  attached  to  the  ribs,  are  enveloped  by 
a  membrane  pierced  with  large  holes,  which  allow  the  air  to  pass 
into  several  cavities  of  the  chest,  lower  part  of  the  abdomen,  arm- 
pits, and  even  of  the  interior  of  the  bones,  so  that  not  only  is  the 
surface  of  the  pulmonary  vessels  bathed  in  the  ambient  fluid,  but 
that  also  of  an  infinitude  of  vessels  in  other  parts  of  the  body.  Thus, 
in  certain  respects,  Birds  respire  by  the  branches  of  the  aorta,  as 
well  as  by  those  of  the  pulmonary  artery,  and  the  energy  of  their  ir- 
ritability is  in  proportion  to  their  quantum  of  respiration.(l)  The 
whole  body  is  so  constructed  as  to  profit  by  this  energy. 

Their  anterior  extremities,  destined  to  sustain  them  in  flight,  could 
neither  serve  them  for  standing,  nor  for  prehension;  they  are  bipeds 
then,  and  pick  up  objects  from  tlie  earth  with  tiieir  mouth;  their 


(1)  Two  common  Swallows  consume  as  much  pure  air  as  a  Guinea-Pig. 

Q 


122  AVES. 

body,  consequently,  is  inclined  before  their  legs,  the  thighs  directed 
forwards,  and  the  toes  elongated,  to  form  a  sufficient  base  for  it.  The 
pelvis  is  very  much  extended  in  length,  in  order  to  furnish  points  of 
attachment  to  those  muscles  which  support  the  trunk  upon  the  thighs. 
There  is  even  a  suite  of  muscles  reaching  from  the  pelvis  to  the  toes, 
passing  over  the  knee  and  heel,  so  that  the  simple  weight  of  the 
bird  flexes  the  toes;  it  is  thus  that  they  are  enabled  to  sleep  in  secu- 
rity, while  perched  on  one  foot. 

The  neck  and  the  beak  are  elongated  to  reach  the  ground,  but 
the  former  has  the  requisite  flexibility  for  bending  backwards  when 
at  rest, — consequently,  it  has  many  vertebrae.  The  trunk,  on  the 
contrary,  which  serves  as  a  point  d'appui  to  the  wings,  has  but  little 
mobihty;  the  sternum,  particularly,  to  which  are  attached  the 
muscles  which  lower  the  wings  in  flight,  is  of  great  extent,  and  has 
its  surface  still  more  enlarged  by  a  salient  process  in  its  middle.  It 
is  originally  composed  of  five  pieces.  The  greater  or  less  degree  of 
the  ossification  of  the  notches,  and  the  extent  of  the  interval  they 
leave  between  them  and  the  principal  bone,  denote  a  relative  strength 
of  wing  and  power  of  flight.  The  Diurnal  Birds  of  Prey,  the  Swal- 
lows and  the  Humming-birds,  lose,  as  they  grow  old,  all  traces  of 
these  unossified  spaces. 

The  fourchette  produced  by  the  junction  of  the  two  clavicles, 
and  the  two  powerful  stretches  formed  by  the  coracoid  apophyses, 
keep  the  shoulders  apart,  notwithstanding  the  eflfbrts  requisite  for 
flight,  that  act  in  an  opposite  direction;  the  greater  the  power  of 
flight,  the  more  open  and  strong  is  the  fourchette.  The  wing,  sup- 
ported by  the  humerus,  fore-arm  and  hand,  the  latter  of  which  is 
elongated  and  has  one  finger  and  vestiges  of  two  others,  is  furnished 
throughout  its  length  with  a  range  of  elastic  quills,  which  greatly 
extends  the  surface  that  resists  the  air.  Those  which  belong  to  the 
hand  are  iermeA  primaries ^  and  there  are  always  ten;  those  attached 
to  the  fore-arm  are  called  secondaries,  but  their  number  varies; 
weaker  feathers  appended  to  the  humerus  are  called  scapulars;  the 
bone,  which  is  analogous  to  the  thumb,  is  also  furnished  with  what 
are  termed  spurious  quills.  Along  the  base  of  the  quills  is  a  range 
of  feathers  named  coverts. 

The  bony  tail  is  very  short,  but  has  a  range  of  large  quills,  which, 
when  spread  out,  assist  in  supporting  the  bird;  they  are  generally 
twelve  in  number,  sometimes  fourteen,  and  in  the  Gallinaceae 
eighteen. 


AYES.      -  133 

The  legs  have  a  femur,  a  libia  and  a  fibula,  which  are  connected 
with  the  femur  by  an  articulation  with  a  spring,  which  keeps  up  the 
extension  without  any  effort  on  the  part  of  the  muscles.  The  tarsus 
and  metatarsus  are  represented  by  one  single  bone,  terminating  be- 
low in  three  pulleys. 

Most  commonly  there  are  three  toes  before,  and  a  thumb  behind; 
the  latter  being  sometimes  deficient.  In  the  Martins  it  is  directed 
forwards.  In  the  Climbers,  on  the  contrary,  the  external  toe  and 
the  thumb  are  directed  backwards.  The  number  of  articulations 
increases  in  each  toe,  commencing  with  the  thumb,  which  has  two, 
and  ending  with  the  external  toe,  which  has  five. 

Birds  are  generally  covered  with  feathers,  the  kind  of  tegument 
best  adapted  for  defending  them  from  the  rapid  variations  of  tempe- 
rature to  which  their  movements  expose  them.  The  air  cavities 
which  occupy  the  interior  of  their  body,  and  even  supersede  the 
marrow  in  the  bones,  increase  their  specific  lightness.  The  sternal, 
as  well  as  the  vertebral  portion  of  the  ribs  is  ossified,  in  order  to 
give  more  power  to  the  dilatation  of  the  chest.  To  each  rib  is  an- 
nexed a  small  bone,  which  soon  becomes  soldered  to  it,  and  is 
directed  obliquely  towards  the  next  one,  thereby  giving  additional 
solidity  to  the  thorax. 

The  eye  is  so  constructed,  in  Birds,  as  to  distinguish,  with  equal 
facility,  objects  at  a  distance,  or  in  its  immediate  vicinity;  a  vascular 
and  plaited  membrane,  which  stretches  from  the  bottom  of  the  globe 
to  the  edge  of  the  crystalline,  probably  assists  in  effecting  this,  by 
displacing  that  lens.  The  anterior  surface  of  the  ball  is  also 
strengthened  by  a  circle  of  bony  pieces,  and  besides  the  two  ordi- 
nary eye-lids,  there  is  always  a  third  one  placed  at  the  internal  angle, 
which,  by  a  remarkable  muscular  apparatus,  can  be  drawn  over  the 
eye  like  a  curtain. 

The  breadth  of  the  osseous  openings  of  the  nostrils  determines 
the  strength  of  the  beak;  and  the  cartilages,  membranes,  feathers 
and  other  teguments  which  narrow  down  those  apertures,  influence 
the  power  of  smell,  and  the  nature  of  the  food. 

There  is  but  little  muscular  substance  in  the  tongue,  which  is  sup- 
ported by  a  bone  articulated  with  the  hyoid;  in  most  Birds  this  or- 
gan is  not  very  delicate. 

The  feathers,  as  well  as  the  quills,  which  only  differ  in  size,  are 
composed  of  a  stem,  hollow  at  base,  and  of  lamina,  which  are  them- 
selves furnished  with  smaller  ones;  their  tissue,  lustre,  strength,  and 


124  AVES. 

general  form  vary  infinitely.  The  touch  must  be  feeble  in  all  such 
parts  as  are  covered  with  them,  and  as  the  beak  is  almost  always 
corneous,  and  has  but  little  sensibility,  and  the  toes  are  invested  with 
scales  above,  and  a  callous  skin  underneath,  that  sense  can  have 
but  little  activity  in  this  class  of  animals. 

Birds  moult  twice  a  year.  In  certain  species,  the  winter  plumage 
differs  in  its  colours  from  that  of  summer;  in  the  greater  number,  the 
female  differs  from  the  male  in  an  inferior  vividness  of  tints,  and 
when  this  is  the  case,  the  young  of  both  sexes  resemble  the  former. 
When  the  adult  male  and  female  are  of  the  same  colour,  the  young 
ones  have  a  livery  peculiar  to  them. 

The  brain  of  Birds  has  the  same  general  characters  as  that  of  other 
Oviparous  Vertebrata,  but  is  distinguished  by  its  very  great  propor- 
tionate size,  which  often  surpasses  even  that  of  this  organ  in  the 
Mammalia. 

The  rings  of  the  trachea  are  entire;  there  is  a  glottis  at  its  bifur- 
cation most  commonly  furnished  with  pecuhar  muscles,  which  is 
called  the  inferior  larynx;  this  is  the  spot  where  the  voice  of  birds  is 
produced;  the  immense  volume  of  air  contained  in  the  air  sacs  con- 
tributes to  its  strength,  and  the  trachea,  by  its  various  forms  and 
motions,  to  its  modifications.  The  superior  larynx,  which  is  ex- 
tremely simple,  has  but  little  to  do  with  it. 

The  horny  substance  which  invests  the  two  mandibles,  performs 
the  office  of  teeth,  and  is  sometimes  so  jagged  as  to  resemble  them; 
its  form,  as  well  as  that  of  the  mandibles  which  support  it,  varies 
extremely,  and  according  to  the  kind  of  food  used  by  each  species. 

The  digestion  of  Birds  is  in  proportion  to  the  activity  of  their  life, 
and  the  force  of  their  respiration.  The  stomach  is  composed  of 
three  parts:  the  crop,  which  is  an  enlargement  of  the  oesophagus;  a 
membranous  stomach,  in  the  thickness  of  whose  parietes  are  a  mul- 
titude of  glands  whose  juices  humect  the  aliment;  and  finally,  the 
gizzard,  armed  with  two  powerful  muscles,  united  by  two  radiated 
tendons,  and  lined  internally  with  a  kind  of  cartilaginous  velvet. 
The  food  is  the  more  easily  ground  there,  as  Birds  constantly  swal- 
low small  stones,  in  order  to  increase  its  triturative  power. 

In  the  greater  part  of  the  species  which  feed  exclusively  on  flesh 
or  fish,  the  muscles  and  villous  coat  of  the  gizzard  are  greatly  atten- 
uated; and  it  seems  to  make  but  a  single  sac  with  the  membranous 
stomach. 

The  dilatation  of  the  crop  is  also  sometimes  wanting. 


\ 


AVES.  125 

The  egg,  detached  from  the  ovary,  where  it  consists  merely  of 
yolk,  imbibes  that  external  fluid,  called  the  white,  in  the  upper  part 
of  the  oviduct,  and  becomes  invested  with  its  shell  at  the  bottom  of 
the  same  canal.  The  chick  contained  within  it  is  developed  by  in- 
cubation, unless  the  heat  of  the  climate  suffices  for  that  purpose,  as 
is  the  case  with  the  egg  of  the  Ostrich.  The  young  Bird  has  a  lit- 
tle horny  point  at  the  extremity  of  the  beak,  with  which  it  splits  open 
the  shell,  and  which  falls  off  a  few  days  after  it  is  hatched. 

The  industry  and  skill  exhibited  by  Birds  in  their  variously  con- 
structed nests,  and  their  tenderness  and  care  in  protecting  their  eggs 
and  young,  are  known  to  every  one;  it  is  the  principal  part  of  their 
instinct.  Their  rapid  transitions  through  different  regions  of  the  air, 
and  the  vivid  and  continual  action  of  that  element  upon  them,  enable 
them  to  anticipate  atmospheric  changes,  to  an  extent  of  which  we 
can  form  no  idea;  and  caused  the  ancients,  in  their  superstition,  to 
attribute  to  them  the  power  of  prescience  or  divination.  It  is  un- 
questionably on  this  faculty,  that  depends  the  instinct  which  acts 
upon  the  Birds  of  passage,  prompting  them  to  seek  the  south  on  the 
approach  of  winter,  and  the  north  on  the  return  of  spring.  They 
have  memory,  and  even  imagination — for  they  dream.  They  are 
easily  tamed,  may  be  taught  to  render  various  services,  and  retain  the 
air  and  words  of  songs. 

Division  of  the  Class  of  Birds  into  Orders. 

Their  distribution  is  founded,  like  that  of  the  Mammalia,  on  the 
organs  of  manducation  or  the  beak,  and  on  those  of  prehension,  that 
is  on  the  beak,  and  particularly  on  the  feet. 

The  first  that  arrest  our  attention  are  the  palmatedfeet,  or  those 
in  which  the  toes  are  connected  by  membranes,  which  distinguish 
all  Swimming  Birds.  The  position  of  these  feet  behind;  the  length 
of  the  sternumj  the  neck,  often  longer  than  the  legs  to  enable  it  to 
reach  below;  the  dense,  polished  plumage,  impermeable  to  water,  all 
concur  with  the  feet  in  making  good  navigators  of  the  Palmipedes. 

In  other  Birds,  which  most  commonly  are  partially  web-footed,  at 
least  between  the  external  toes,  we  observe  elevated  tarsi;  legs  divest- 
ed of  feathers  at  their  lower  extremities;  a  long  thin  shape,  and  in  fine, 
all  the  requisites  for  wading  along  the  shores  of  rivers  to  seek  their 
food.  Such,  in  fact,  is  the  regimen  of  the  greater  number;  and  al- 
though some  of  them  inhabit  dry  grounds,  they  are  called  Shore- 
Birds,  or  Waders. 


136  AVES. 

Among  the  true  land  birds,  the  GalUnacese,  like  our  domestic 
Cock,  have  a  heavy  carriage,  a  moderate  beak,  the  upper  mandible 
of  whicli  is  arched;  the  nostrils  partly  covered  by  a  soft  and  inflated 
scale;  the  toes  almost  always  indented  on  the  edges,  and  short  mem- 
branes between  the  bases  of  the  anterior  ones.  They  fly  heavily, 
and  but  a  short  distance  at  a  time.     Their  chief  food  is  grain. 

Birds  of  prey  have  a  hooked  beak,  the  point  of  which  is  sharp, 
and  curved  downwards;  the  nostrils  pierced  in  a  membrane  which  in- 
vests the  whole  base  of  that  beak,  and  feet  armed  with  vigorous  talons. 
They  live  on  flesh,  pursue  other  birds,  and  are  consequently,  for  the 
most  part,  vigorous  in  flight.  The  greater  number  have  still  a  slight 
web  between  the  external  toes. 

The  Passerinae  comprise  many  more  species  than  all  the  other 
families;  but  their  organization  presents  so  many  analogies  that  they 
cannot  be  separated,  although  varying  greatly  in  size  and  strength. 
Their  two  external  toes  are  united  at  the  base,  and  sometimes  for  a 
part  of  their  length.  ■• 

Finally,  the  name  of  Scansorise^  or  Climbing  Birds,  has  been  given 
to  those  whose  external  toe,  like  the  thumb,  is  directed  backwards, 
because  the  greater  number  profit  by  a  conformation  so  favourable 
to  a  vertical  position,  to  climb  trees. 

Each  of  these  orders  is  subdivided  into  families  and  genera,  and 
principally  from  the  conformation  of  the  beak. 


ORDER  I. 

ACCIPITRES,  Lin. 

Birds  of  Prey  are  known  by  their  hooked  beak  and  talons,  pow- 
erful weapons,  with  which  they  pursue  other  Birds,  and  even  the 
weaker  Quadrupeds  and  Reptiles.  They  are  among  Birds  what 
the  Carnivora  are  among  Quadrupeds.  The  muscles  of  their  thighs 
and  legs  indicate  the  strength  of  their  claws;  their  tarsi  are  rarely 
elongated;  they  have,  all,  four  toes;  the  nail  of  the  thumb  and  that  of 
the  internal  toe  are  the  strongest. 

They  form  two  families,  the  diurnal  and  the  nocturnal. 


ACCIl'ITRES.  127 

FAMILY  I. 

DIURNiE. 

The  eyes  of  the  diurnal  Birds  of  prey  are  directed  sideways;  they 
have  a  membrane  called  the  cera,  or  cere,  covering  the  base  of  the 
beak,  in  which  the  nostrils  are  pierced;  three  toes  before,  one  behind, 
without  feathers,  the  two  external  ones  almost  always  united  at  base 
by  a  short  membrane^  the  plumage  dense,  the  quills  strong,  and  great 
power  on  the  wing.  Their  sternum  is  broad  and  completely  ossified 
in  order  to  give  more  extended  attachments  to  the  muscles  of  the 
wings,  and  their  fourchette  semicircular  and  widely  separated,  the 
better  to  resist  the  violent  flexions  of  the  humerus  necessary  to  a 
rapid  flight. 

Linnaeus  comprehended  them  all  under  two  genera,  which  are  so 
many  natural  divisions,  the  Vultures  and  the  Falcons. 

VuLTUK,  Lin. 

The  Vultures  have  eyes  flush  with  the  head,  and  reticulated  tarsi,  that  is, 
covered  with  small  scales;  an  elongated  beak,  curved  only  at  the  end,  and  a 
greater  or  less  portion  of  the  head,  or  even  of  the  neck  divested  of  feathers. 
The  strength  of  their  talons  does  not  correspond  with  their  size,  and  they 
make  more  use  of  their  beak  than  of  their  claws.  Their  wings  are  so  long 
that  in  walking  they  keep  them  in  a  state  of  semi-extension.  They  are  a 
cowardly  genus,  feeding  oftener  on  carrion  than  on  a  hving  prey,-  when  they 
have  fed,  their  crop  forms  a  great  protuberance  above  the  fourchette,  a  fetid 
humour  flows  from  their  nostrils,  and  they  are  almost  reduced  to  a  state  of 
stupid  insensibility. 

Vult.  gryphus,  L.  (The  Condor.)  Blackish;  a  gi-eat  part  of  the  wing 
ash  coloured;  collar  silky  and  white;  the  male,  in  addition  to  his  superior 
caruncle,  which  is  large  and  entire,  has  another  under  the  beak,  like  the 
cock.  This  species  has  been  rendered  famous  by  exaggerated  reports  of 
its  size;  it  is,  however,  but  a  little  larger  than  the  Laemmer-geyer ,  to  which 
it  assimilates  in  habits.  It  is  found  in  the  most  elevated  mountains  of  the 
Andes  in  South  America,  and  flies  higher  than  any  other  bird. 

The  genus  Vultur  is  now  divided  into  Vkiltur  proper,  Catharies  {ouv  Tur- 
key Buzzard),  Percnopterus  (the  Urubu  or  Carrion  Crow  of  the  south),  and 
Gypactos,  to  which  last  belongs  the  Lsemmer-geyer,  the  largest  bird  of  prey 
in  the  eastern  continent. 

Falco,  Lin. 
The  Falcons  form  the  second,  and  by  far  most  numerous  division  of  the 
diurnal  birds  of  prey.     Their  head  and  neck  are  covered  with  feathersj 


128  AVES. 

their  eye-brows  project,  which  occasions  the  eye  to  appear  sunk,  and  gives 
to  their  physiognomy  a  character  very  different  from  that  of  the  Vultures: 
the  greater  number  prey  on  living  animals,  but  they  differ  in  the  coiirage 
with  which  they  pursue  it.  Their  first  plumage  is  often  very  differently 
coloured  from  that  of  the  adult,  which  is  only  assumed  in  their  third  or 
fourth  year,  a  circumstance  which  has  occasioned  a  great  multiplication  of 
species.  The  female  is  generally  one-third  larger  than  the  male,  which, 
on  this  account,  is  styled  a  tarselov  tercel.  We  should,  first  of  all,  subdivide 
this  genus  into  two  great  sections. 

NOBLE  BIRDS  OF  PREY. 

Falcons,  properly  so  called. 

The  true  Falcons  constitute  the  first,  and,  in  proportion  to  their  size,  are 
the  most  courageous,  a  quality  which  is  derived  from  the  power  of  their 
arms  and  M'ings;  their  beak,  curved  from  its  base,  has  a  sharp  tooth  on  each 
side  of  its  point,  and  the  second  quill  of  their  wings  is  the  longest,  the  first 
nearly  equalling  it,  which  renders  the  whole  wing  longer  and  more  pointed- 
From  this,  also,  result  peculiar  habits:  the  length  of  the  quills  of  their  wings 
diminishes  their  vertical  power,  and  compels  them,  in  a  calm  state  of  the 
atmosphere,  to  fly  obliquely  forwards,  so  that  when  they  wish  to  rise 
directly  upwards,  they  are  obliged  to  fly  against  the  wind. 

F.  communis,  Gm.  (The  Common  Falcon. )  As  large  as  a  Hen,  and  dis- 
tinguished by  a  triangular,  black  moustache  on  the  cheek,  larger  than  that 
of  any  other  species  of  the  genus;  it  varies  as  to  colours  accorc^g  to  its  age. 

It  is  this  celebrated  species  which  has  given  its  name  to  that  kmd  of  hunt- 
ing in  which  birds  of  prey  are  used.  It  inhabits  the  whole  north  of  the 
earth,  and  builds  in  the  most  elevated  and  inaccessible  cliffs. 

HiEROFALCO,  CuV.  (1) 

The  Gerfalcons  have  wing  quills  similar  to  those  of  the  other  Noble  birds, 
which  they  perfectly  resemble  in  disposition;  but  their  beak  has  only  an 
emargination  like  thatof  the  Ignoble  ones.   Only  one  species  is  well  known. 

F.  candicans.  (The  Gerfalcon.)  One  fourth  larger  than  the  Falcon,  and 
the  most  highly  esteemed  by  falconers.  It  is  chiefly  obtained  from  the 
north;  its  usual  plumage  is  brown  above,  with  an  edging  of  paler  points  on 
each  feather,  and  transverse  lines  on  the  coverts  and  quills. 

The  second  section  of  the  great  genus  Falco  is  that  of  the 

IGNOBLE  BIRDS  OF  PREY. 

So  called,  because  they  cannot  be  easily  employed  in  falconry;  a  tribe 
much  more  numerous  than  that  of  the  Nobles,  and  which  it  is  also  necessary 


(1)  Hierax,  Hiero-falco,  Sacred  Falcon,  &c.  names  connected  with  the 
superstitions  of  the  Egyptians  respecting  certain  birds  of  prey.  Gerfalcon 
is  a  corniption  of  Hierofalco- 


ACCIPITRES.  129 

to  subdivide  considerably.  The  fourth  quill  of  their  wings  is  almost  always 
the  longest,  and  the  first  is  very  short,  which  produces  the  same  effect  as 
if  their  wing  were  obhquely  truncated  at  the  tip,  whence,  cxteris  pari- 
bus, result  diminished  powers  of  flight;  their  beak  also  is  not  so  well  armed, 
there  being  no  lateral  tooth  near  its  point,  but  a  mere  slight  emargination 
about  the  middle  of  its  length. 

AatJiLA,  Briss. 

The  Eagles  which  constitute  the  first  tribe,  have  a  very  strong  beak, 
straight  at  base  and  only  curved  towai'ds  the  point.  Among  tliem  we  find 
the  largest  species  of  the  genus,  and  the  most  powerful  of  all  the  birds  of 
prey. 

The  Eagles  are  now  subdivided  into  Aquila  proper  (to  which  belongs  our 
Ring-tailed  Eagle),  the  Haliaetus  of  Savigny  or  Fisher  Eagles  of  Cuvier  (the 
Pj'gargus  and  our  Bald  Eagle), -Pflnc?j07{  (the  Osprey),  Circaetus,  Harpyia 
(where  we  find  the  "  Great  Harpy  of  America"  that  possesses  such 
strength  of  beak  as  to  be  able  to  cleave  a  man's  skull),  and  Morphnus,  differ- 
ing In  certain  peculiai-ities  of  the  tarsi,  claws,  and  wings. 

AsTtTH,  Bechst. 

The  Goshawks,  which  form  the  second  division  of  the  Ignobles,  like  the 
last  three  tribes  of  Eagles,  have  wings  shorter  than  their  tail;  but  their  beak 
is  curved  from  its  base,  as  in  all  those  which  are  to  follow.  We  pai-ticu- 
larly  designate  as  Goshawks  those  which  have  rather  short  and  scutellated 
tarsi. 

The  name  of  Spakkowhawk,  (Nisus,  Cuv.)  is  generally  appropriated  to 
those  whose  tarsi  are  higher  and  scutellated;  but  the  transitions  from  one 
division  to  the  other  are  almost  insensible. 

F.  nisus,  L.  (The  Common  Span'owhawk.)  Coloured  like  the  Gos- 
hawk, but  its  legs  are  longer,  and  it  is  a  third  less  in  size.  It  is  employed 
however  by  falconers. 

Mnvus,  Bechstein. 

The  Kites  have  short  tarsi,  and  weak  toes  and  nails,  wliich,  added  to  a 
beak  equally  disproportioned  to  their  size,  render  them  the  most  cowardly 
species  of  the  whole  genus;  they  are  distinguished  by  their  excessively  long 
wings,  and  their  forked  tail,  wliich  give  them  great  powers  of  flight. 

F.furcatus,  L,.  (The  Fork-tailed  Kite.)  Wliite;  wings  and  tail  black; 
the  two  external  quills  of  the  latter  veiy  long;  larger  than  the  preceding. 
It  attacks  reptiles. 

Pehnis,  Cuv. 
The  Honey-Buzzards,  with  the  weak  beak  of  the  Kites,  have  a  very  pecu- 
liar character  in  the  space  between  the  eye  and  the  beak,  which.  In  all  the 
rest  of  the  genus  Falco,  is  naked,  and  simply  furnished  with  a  few  hairs, 
but  in  these  is  covered  with  a  dense  plumage,  the  feathers  of  which  are  cut 

R 


130  AVES. 

like  scales;  their  tarsi  are  half  feathered  above  and  reticulated:  their  tsul  is 
equal,  vvings  long",  and  their  beak  curved  from  its  base  like  all  those  which 
follow- 

BuTEO,  Bechstein. 
The  Buzzards  have  long  wings;  the  taU  equal;  the  beak  curved  from  its 
base;  the  space  between  it  and  the  eyes  naked;  the  feet  strong. 

CiHCTTs,  Bechstein. 
The  Harriers  differ  from  the  Buzzards  in  their  elevated  tarsi,  and  in  a 
kind  of  collar  on  each  side  of  their  neck,  formed  by  the  tips  of  the  feathers 
which  cover  their  ears.    Finally,  the 

Sehpentarius,  Cuv. 
The  Snake-Eater  or  Secretary,  is  an  African  bird  of  prey,  whose  tarsi  are 
at  least  double  the  length  of  those  of  the  preceding  ones,  which  caused 
some  naturalists  to  place  it  among  the  Grallatorise,  or  Waders;  but  its  legs, 
completely  invested  with  feathers,  its  hooked  and  cleft  beak,  projecting 
eye-lids,  and  all  its  anatomical  details  place  it  in  the  present  order.  It  inha- 
bits the  dry  and  open  grounds  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Cape,  where  it  hunts 
reptiles  on  foot;  its  claws  consequently  become  much  worn.  Its  chief 
strength  lies  in  the  leg. 


FAMILY  11. 

NOCTURNE. 

Nocturnal  birds  of  prey  have  a  large  head;  great  eyes,  directed 
forwards,  surrounded  by  a  circle  of  slender  feathers,  the  anterior  of 
which  cover  the  cera  of  the  beak,  and  the  posterior,  the  opening  of 
the  ear.  Their  enormous  pupil  permits  the  entrance  of  so  many 
rays  of  light,  that  they  are  dazzled  by  that  of  day.  Their  cranium, 
which  is  thick,  but  formed  of  a  light  substance,  is  excavated  by  large 
sinuses,  which  communicate  with  the  ear,  and  which  probably  as- 
sist in  strengthening  the  sense  of  hearing;  but  the  organs  of  flight 
are  not  very  vigorous;  their  fourchette  is  weak;  their  feathers  being 
soft,  and  covered  with  a  fine  down,  make  no  noise  in  flying.  They 
can  direct  their  external  toe  either  forwards  or  backwards.  These 
birds  are  chiefly  on  the  wing  during  twilight,  and  when  the  moon 
shines.  When  attacked  in  the  day  time,  they  do  not  fly  off",  but 
stand  more  erect,  assume  odd  postures,  and  make  the  most  ludicrous 
gestures. 

Their  prey  is  wholly  animal,  consisting  of  Mice,  small  Birds,  and 


ACCIPITRES.  131 

Insects.  Small  birds  have  a  natural  antipathy  to  them,  and  fre- 
quently assemble  from  all  quarters  to  attack  them.  They  form  but 
one  genus, 

Stkix,  Lin. 
The  Owk  may  be  divided  by  their  tufts,  the  size  of  their  ears,  the  extent 
of  the  circle  of  feathers  which  surrounds  their  eyes,  and  some  other  char- 
acters. 

Otus,  Cuv. 

The  Homed  Owls,  or  those  which  have  two  tufts  of  feathers  on  the  fore- 
head, (Tulg.  horns)  which  they  can  erect  at  pleasui-e;  the  conch  of  their 
ear  extends  in  a  semicircle  from  the  beak  to  the  top  of  the  head,  and  is  fur- 
nished in  front  with  a  membranous  operculum.  Their  feet  are  feathered 
down  to  the  nails.     Such  is 

Str.  otus,  L.  (The  Common  Owl.)  Fawn  coloured,  with  longitudinal 
brown  spots  on  the  body  and  underneath ;  wings  and  back  vermiculated 
with  brown;  horns  half  the  length  of  the  head;  eight  or  nine  bands  on 
the  tail. 

The  genus  Strix,  as  already  stated,  now  forms  several  subgenera  such  as 
Otus,  Symium,  Bubo,  Scops,  and  Nodua.    To  the  last  belongs  the 

Str.  nydea,  L.  (The  Snowy  Owl.)  This  bird  almost  equals  tlie  Grand 
Duo  in  size.  Its  snow-white  plumage  is  mai'ked  with  transverse  brown 
spots,  which  disappear  with  age.  It  inhabits  the  north  of  both  continents, 
builds  upon  high  rocks,  and  pursues  Hares,  Grouse,  &c. 


ORDER  II. 

PASSERIN.^.(l) 

This  order  is  the  most  numerous  of  the  whole  class. 

The  birds  which  compose  it  have  neither  the  violence  of  the  Birds 
of  Prey,  nor  the  fixed  regimen  of  the  Gallinaceae,  nor  of  the  Water- 
birds  ;  Insects,  fruit,  and  grain  constitute  their  food,  which  consists 
the  more  exclusively  of  grain,  in  proportion  to  the  largeness  of 
their  beak,  and  of  Insects,  as  it  is  the  more  slender.  Those  which 
have  strong  beaks  pursue  even  small  birds.  Among  them  we  find 
the  singing  birds,  and  the  most  complicated  inferior  larynx. 


(1)  Passerme;  from  Passer  a  span'ow. 


132  AVES. 

The  proportional  length  of  their  wings,  and  their  power  of  flight 
are  as  various  as  their  habits. 

Our  first  division  is  founded  upon  the  feet;  we  then  have  recourse 
to  the  beak. 

The  first  and  most  numerous  comprehends  those  genera  in  which 
the  external  toe  is  united  to  its  felfow  by  one  or  two  phalanges  only. 

FAMILY  I. 

DENTIROSTRES. 

In  this  family  the  beak  is  emarginate  on  the  sides  of  the  point. 
It  is  in  this  family  that  we  find  the  greatest  number  of  insectivorous 
birds,  though  almost  all  of  them  likewise  feed  on  berries  and  other 
soft  fruits.     In  the  Shrikes,  or 

Lanius,  Lin. 

The  beak  is  conical  or  compressed,  and  more  or  less  hooked  at  the  point. 

Shrikes  live  in  families,  and  fly  in'egulaxiy  and  precipitately,  uttering^ 
shrill  cries;  they  build  on  trees,  lay  five  or  six  eggs,  and  take  gi-eat  care  of 
their  young.  They  have  a  habit  of  imitating,  on  the  spot,  a  part  of  the  songs 
of  such  birds  as  live  in  then-  vicinity.  The  upper  pai't  of  the  females  and  of 
the  young  is  marked  with  fine  transverse  Hnes. 

Lan.  coUurio,  Gm.  (The  Butcher  Bu-d.)  Top  of  the  head  and  rump  ash 
coloured;  back  and  wings  fawn  coloured;  whitish  above;  a  black  band  over 
the  eye;  wing-qmlls  black  edged  with  fawn  colour,  those  of  the  tail  black, 
the  lateral  ones  white  at  base.  It  destroys  smaU  Birds,  young  Frogs  and 
great  numbers  of  Insects,  which  it  sticks  upon  the  thorns  of  bushes,  in  order 
to  devour  them  at  leisure,  or  to  find  them  again  when  wanted. 

The  subdivisions  of  this  genus  are  Vanga,  OcypteruSt  Barita,  8tc.,  differ- 
ing chiefly  in  the  arrangement  of  the  beak. 

MusciCAPA,  Lin. 

The  Fly-Catchers  have  a  horizontally  depressed  beak,  furnished  with  hairs 
at  its  base,  and  the  point  more  or  less  hooked  and  emarginated.  Their 
general  habits  are  those  of  the  Shi'ikes,  and  they  live  on  small  Birds  or  In- 
sects, according  to  their  size.  The  weakest  of  them  gradually  approach  the 
form  of  the  Wagtails. 

This  genus  is  now  divided  into  various  subgenera,  such  as  Tyrannus, 
Muscipeta,  Muscicapa,  Gymnocephalus,  &c.  The  species  are  very  numerous. 

Ampelis,  Lin. 
The  Crown-Birds  have  tlie  depressed  beak  of  the  Flycatchers,  but  it  is 
somewhat  shorter  m  proportion,  tolerably  broad  and  shghtJy  arcuated. 


PASSERINiE.  133 

Those  in  which  it  is  the  most  pointed  and  sti'ong',  have  still  a  decidedly 
insectivorous  regimen :  they  are  called  Piauhau  from  then-  note — ^the  Que- 
BULA,  Vieill.    They  inhabit  America,  where  they  pursue  Insects,  in  flocks. 

They  are  now  distributed  into  several  subgenera,  such  as  Tarsina,  Ceble- 
pyris,  Bomhycilla  (the  Chatterers),  Procnias,  &c. 

Edolius,  Cuv. 
Belongs  also  to  the  great  series  of  the  Flycatchers;  the  beak  is  depressed 
and  emarginato  at  the  end;  its  upper  ridge  is  acute;  but  what  distinguishes 
it,  is,  that  both  mandibles  are  slightly  arcuated  throughout  their  length;  the 
nostrils  are  covered  with  feathers,  and  there  are,  besides,  long  hairs  form- 
ing mustachios. 

The  species  are  numerous  in  the  countries  bordering  on  the  Indian  Ocean. 
They  are  generally  of  a  black  hue,  have  a  forked  taU,  and  live  on  Insects; 
some  of  them,  it  is  said,  sing  as  sweetly  as  the  Nightingale. 

Tanagea,  Lin. 

The  Tanagers  have  a  conical  beak,  triangular  at  base,  slightly  arcuated  at  its 
ridge,  emarginate  near  the  end;  \vings  and  flight  short.  They  resemble  the 
Finches  in  habits,  and  feed  on  grain  as  well  as  on  berries  and  insects.  The 
greater  number  are  remarkable  for  their  bright  colours. 

TuEDUs,  Lin. 

The  Thrushes  have  a  compressed  and  arcuatedbeak,  but  its  point  is  not  hook- 
ed, and  its  emarginations  do  not  form  such  deep  notches  as  in  the  Shrikes; 
as  we  have  already  stated,  however,  there  are  gradual  transitions  from  one 
genus  to  the  other. 

Theu-  regimen  is  more  frugivorous,  generally  feeding  on  berries.  Their 
habits  are  solitary. 

T.  polyghttus,  L.  (The  Mocking-Bird.)  From  North  America;  ash- 
coloured  above,  paler  beneath,  with  a  white  band  on  the  wing.  It  is  cele- 
brated for  the  astonishing  facility  with  which  it  imitates  the  notes  of  other 
birds,  and  even  all  kinds  of  sounds. 

Buffbn  has  very  properly  separated  from  the  Thrushes,  the 

Myotheea,  Illig. 
The  Ant-Catchers  are  known  by  their  long  legs  and  short  tail.  They  live  on  In- 
sects, and  chiefly  on  Ants.     They  are  found  in  both  continents. 

M.  rex.  (King  of  the  Ant-Catchers.)  The  largest  of  all,  and  stands  the 
highest;  its  tail,  on  the  other  hand,  is  the  shortest,  and  at  the  first  glance  it 
might  be  taken  for  a  Wader;  it  is  about  the  size  of  a  Quail,  and  its  grey  plu- 
mage is  agreeably  chequered.    It  Is  more  solitary  than  the  others. 

We  must  also  separate  from  the  Tlu-ushes: 

CiNCLUs,  Becbst. 
Or  the  Water-  Thrushes,  wliich  Ixave  a  compressed,  straight  beak,  with  man- 


134  AVES. 

dibles  of  an  equal  height,  neai-ly  linear,  and  becotmng  sharp  near  the  point; 
the  upper  one  hardly  arcuated. 

Africa,  and  the  countiics  bordering  on  the  Indian  Ocean,  produce  a  genus 
of  birds  neighbours  of  the  Thrushes,  which  I  call 

Philedon. 

Their  beak  is  compressed,  slightly  arcuated  throughout  its  length,  and 
emar^ate  near  the  point;  nostrils  large,  and  covered  by  a  cartilagmous scale; 
their  tongue  terminated  by  a  pencil  of  hairs. 

EULABES,  CuV. 

The  birds  of  this  genus  are  closely  allied  to  those  of  the  preceding  one. 
Their  beak  is  nearly  that  of  a  Thrush;  their  nostrils  are  round  and  smooth. 
Their  distinguishing  mark  consists  in  broad  strips  of  naked  skin  on  each 
side  of  the  occiput,  and  a  bald  spot  on  the  cheek. 

Gracula,  Cuv. 
Is  another  genus  allied  to  the  Thrushes.  The  species  inhabit  Africa  and  the 
countries  bordei'ing  on  the  Indian  Ocean.  Their  beak  is  compressed,  very 
little  arcuated,  and  slightly  emarginate;  its  commissure  forms  an  angle  hke 
that  of  the  Starling.  They  have  the  habits  of  Starlings,  and  like  tlxem,  pur- 
sue insects  in  flocks. 

Pyrrhocorax,  Cuv. 
The  compressed,  arcuated,  and  sloped  beak  of  the  Thrushes;  but  their  nos- 
trils are  covered  with  feathers,  as  in  the  Crows,  to  which  they  were  for  a 
long  time  united.     There  is  one  in  Europe. 
I  can  find  no  character  sufficient  to  warrant  removing  from  the  Thrushes 

Oriolus,  Lin. 
Or  the  Orioles,  whose  beak,  similar  to  that  of  the  Tlunishes,  is  merely  a  little 
stronger;  the  feet  a  little  shorter,  and  the  wings  a  little  longer  in  proportion. 

Gymnops,  Cuv. 

The  same  strong  beak  as  the  Orioles;  the  nostrils  round,  without  scales  or 
surrounding  membrane;  a  great  part  of  the  head  naked. 

Some  of  them  have  prominences  on  the  beak.    In  these  the  tongue  is 
pencUlated  as  in  Philedon. 

MjENURa,  Shaw. 
These  Birds  evidently  belong  to  the  order  of  the  Passerinse,  and  approach 
the  Thrushes  in  their  beak,  which  is  triangulai*  at  base,  elongated,  slightly 
compressed,  and  emarginate  near  tlie  point.     They  ai-c  distinguished  by  tlie 
great  taU  of  tlie  male,  which  is  very  remax'kable  for  the  three  sorts  of  feath- 


PASSERINE.  135 

ers  which  compose  it,  viz.  the  twelve  common  ones  with  very  fine  and  widely 
separated  barbs;  two  more  in  the  middle  only  one  side  of  which  is  furnished 
with  tliickly  set  barbs,  and  two  external  ones  curved  into  the  figiu-e  of  an  S, 
or  like  tlie  arms  of  a  lyre,  whose  internal  barbs,  large  and  thickly  set,  form 
a  kind  of  broad  riband,  while  those  tliat  are  external  are  very  short,  becom- 
ing longer  only  near  the  tip.     Tlie  female  has  only  twelve  ordinary  quills. 

The  singular  species,  Maenura  lyra,  inhabits  the  rocky  districts  of  New 
Holland;  its  size  is  somewhat  less  than  that  of  the  Pheasant. 

MoTACiLLA,  Lin. 
The  Warblers  form  an  excessively  numerous  family,  known  by  the  beak, 
which  is  straight,  slender,  and  similar  to  a  bodkin.     When  slightly  depress- 
ed at  base,  it  approaches  that  of  the  Flycatchers;  when  compressed,  and  its 
point  is  curved  a  little,  it  leads  to  the  straight  beaked  Shrikes. 

CuRRucA,  Eechst. 

A  straight  beak,  slender  throughout,  slightly  compressed  before;  the  up- 
per mandible  a  little  ciu-ved  near  the  point.  The  most  celebrated  of  this 
subgenus  is 

Mot.  luscinia,  L.  (The  Nightingale.)  A  reddish  brown  above;  whitish 
grey  beneath;  the  tail  somewhat  redder.  Every  one  knows  this  songster  of 
the  night,  and  the  varied  melody  with  which  it  fills  the  woods.  It  builds 
on  trees,  and  does  not  begin  to  sing  until  the  young  ones  are  hatched.  The 
male,  then,  as  well  as  the  female,  is  occupied  in  providing  them  with  food. 

The  other  subgenera  are  Saxicola  (the  Wheat-ear) ;  Sylvia  (our  Blue-Bird); 
Regulus;  Troghdytea  (Wrens);  Motacilla  (the  Wag-tails);  Jlnthus  (Meadow- 
Larks). 

We  will  terminate  this  family  of  the  Dentirostres  with  some  birds 
distinguished  from  all  preceding  ones  by  their  two  external  toes, 
which  are  united  at  base  for  about  a  third  of  their  length,  a  circum- 
stance whch  approximates  them  to  the  family  of  the  Syndactyli. 

PiPRA,  Lin. 

The  Manakins  have  a  compressed  beak,  higher  than  it  is  broad,  and  emar- 
ginated;  large  nasal  fossje .  Their  feet  and  tail  are  short;  the  general  propor- 
tions of  their  form  have  long  caused  them  to  be  considered  as  very  similar 
to  the  Titmouse.     At  their  head,  but  in  a  separate  group,  should  be  placed 

RupicoLA,  Briss. 
The  Rock  Manakins,  or  Cocks  of  the  Rock,  which  are  large  birds,  and  have 
a  double  vertical  crest  on  the  head,  formed  of  feathers  aiTanged  like  a  fan. 
The  adult  males  of  the  two  American  species,  Pipra  rupicola,  and  Pip. 
peruviana,  are  of  a  most  splendid  orange  colour;  the  young  of  an  obscure 
brown.    They  live  on  fhiit,  scratch  the  ground  like  the  common  Hen,  and 


136  AVES. 

construct  their  nests  with  pieces  of  dry  wood,  in  the  depths  of  rocky  caverns. 
The  female  lays  two  eggs. 

EuEYLAiMus,  Horsf. 

Toes  similar  to  those  of  the  Manakins  and  the'Rock  Manakins;  but  the  beak, 
as  strong  as  that  of  the  Tyrants,  is  enormously  broad  and  depressed,  the  base 
even  surpassing  the  width  of  the  forehead.  The  point  is  a  little  hooked, 
and  slightly  emarginate  on  each  side;  the  ridge  is  blunt. 

These  birds  inhabit  the  archipelago  of  India.  The  ground  of  their  plu- 
mage is  black,  variegated  with  patches  of  bright  colours,  and  they  have 
something  of  the  air  of  the  Bucco,  a  genus  of  a  very  different  order.  They 
live  near  water,  and  feed  on  insects. 


FAMILY  II. 

FISSIROSTRES. 

The  Fissirostres  form  a  family,  numerically  small,  but  very  distinct 
from  all  others  in  the  beak,  which  is  short,  broad,  horizontally  flat- 
tened, slightly  hooked,  unemarginate,  and  with  an  extended  commiss- 
ure, so  that  the  opening  of  the  mouth  is  very  large,  which  enables 
them  to  swallow  with  ease  the  Insects  they  capture  while  on  the  wing. 

They  are  most  nearly  allied  to  the  Fly-catchers,  and  to  the  Proc- 
nise  in  particular,  whose  beak  only  differs  from  theirs  in  being  emar- 
ginate. 

They  are  separated,  like  the  Birds  of  Prey,  into  two  divisions,  the 
Diurnal  and  the  Nocturnal.     The  genus 

HiRUNDO,  Lin, 
Or  the  Swallows,  comprehends  the  diurnal  species,  all  of  which  are  remark- 
able for  their  dense  plumage,  extreme  length  of  wing,  and  velocity  of  flight. 
Among  them  we  distinguish 

CxpsEi-trs,  Uliger. 
Of  all  Birds,  these  have  the  longest  wings  in  proportion  to  their  size,  and 
the  greatest  powers  of  flight.  Their  tail  is  forked;  their  extremely  short 
feet  have  tliisvery  peculiar  character:  the  thumb  is  directed  forward  almost 
as  much  as  tlie  other  toes,  and  the  middle  and  external  ones  consist  each  of 
three  phalanges  like  the  internal  one.  The  shoi'tness  of  their  feet,  together 
with  the  length  of  their  wings,  prevents  them,  when  on  the  ground,  from 
rising,  and  consequently  tlicy  pass  their  lives,  if  I  may  so  express  it,  in  the 
air,  pursuing,  in  flocks  and  with  loud  cries,  their  Insect  prey  tlirough  the 
highest  regions  of  the  atmosphere.  They  nestle  in  holes  of  walls,  or  fissures 
in  rocks,  and  chmb  along  the  smoothest  surfaces  with  great  rapidity. 


PASSERINE.  137 

HiRUTfDO,  CuV. 

The  Swallows  proper  have  the  toes  and  sternum  disposed  like  those  of  the 
Passerinse  generally.  In  some  of  them  the  feet  are  invested  with  feathers 
down  to  the  nails;  the  thumb  still  exhibits  a  disposition  to  incline  forward; 
the  tail  is  forked,  and  of  a  moderate  size. 

There  are  some  in  which  the  tail  is  nearly  square.  Others  have  naked  toes. 

Capkimulgus,  Lin.(l) 
The  Goatsuckers  have  the  same  light,  soft  plumage,  shaded  with  grey 
and  brown,  that  characterizes  the  noctiu-nal  bu'ds.  Their  eyes  are  large; 
the  commissure  of  the  beak  extending  still  higher  up  than  that  of  the  Swal- 
low,  and  furnished  with  stiff  mustachios,  is  capable  of  engulphing  the  largest 
insects,  which  are  retained  there  by  a  glutinous  saliva;  the  nostrils,  formed 
like  small  tubes,  are  at  its  base.  Their  wings  are  long;  their  feet  short, 
with  feathered  tarsi,  and  their  toes  united  at  base  by  a  short  membrane. 
Goatsuckers  live  solitarily,  and  never  venture  abroad,  except  at  twilight,  and 
in  the  night  during  fine  weatlier.  They  hunt  Phalense  and  other  noctui-nal 
insects,  and  lay  a  small  number  of  eggs  on  the  bare  ground,  without  taking 
any  pains  in  tlie  construction  of  a  nest.  The  rushing  of  the  air  into  their 
immense  mouth,  while  on  tI^e  wing,  produces  a  very  peculiar  humming  sound. 
America  produces  several  of  these  birds  with  a  round  or  square  tail,  one 
of  which,  C.  vociferus  (The  Whip-Poor-Will),  is  celebrated  on  account  of  its 
loud  and  peculiar  cries  in  the  spring  of  the  year. 


FAMILY  III. 

CONIROSTRES. 

The  Conirostres  comprehend  genera  with  a  strong  beak,  more  or 
less  conical,  and  unemarginate;  the  stronger  and  thicker  their  beak, 
the  more  exclusively  is  grain  their  food.  The  first  genus  to  be 
distinguished  is, 

Alatjda,  Lin. 

The  Larks  are  known  by  the  nail  of  their  thumb,  which  is  straight,  strong, 
and  much  longer  than  the  others.     They  are  granivorous  bh-ds,  and  pul- 
verators.     They  build  on  the  ground,  and  generally  keep  there. 
The  beak  of  the  greater  number  is  straight,  moderately  stout  and  pointed. 


(1)  Caprimulgus,  Goatsucker,  Mgothelas,  names  which  derive  their  origin 
from  the  whimsical  idea,  entertained  by  the  people,  of  their  sucking  Goats 
and  even  Cows. 

s 


138  AVES. 

PARtfs,  Lin. 
The  Titmouse  has  a  slender,  short,  conical  and  straight  beak,  furnished  with 
little  hairs  at  the  base,  and  the  nostrils  concealed  among  the  feathers.  It 
is  a  genus  of  very  active  little  bu'ds,  which  are  continually  flitting  and  climb- 
ing from  branch  to  branch,  suspending  themselves  therefrom  in  all  sorts  of 
positions,  rending  apart  the  seeds  on  which  they  feed,  devouring  insects 
wherever  they  see  them,  and  not  sparing  even  small  birds  when  they  hap- 
pen to  find  them  sick  and  are  able  to  put  an  end  to  them.  They  lay  up 
stores  of  seeds,  build  in  the  holes  of  old  trees,  and  lay  more  eggs  than  any 
of  the  Passerinse. 

Emberiza,  Lin. 
The  Buntings  have  a  very  distinct  character  in  their  conical,  short  and 
straight  beak,  the  upper  mandible  of  which  is  narrow,  sinks  into  the  lower, 
and  has  a  projecting,  hard  tubercle  on  the  palate.     They  are  granivorous, 
and  unsuspicious  birds,  which  run  into  every  snare  that  is  laid  for  them. 

E.  hortulana,  Li.  (The  Ortolan.)  The  back  olive-brown;  throat  yellow- 
ish; the  inner  side  of  the  two  external  feathers  of  the  tail  white.  Builds 
in  hedges;  is  very  fat  and  common  in  autumn. 

Fkia'gilla,  Lin. 

The  Sparrows  have  a  conical  beak,  more  or  less  thick  at  base;  but  its  com- 
missure is  not  angular.  They  feed  generaEy  on  grain,  and  are  for  the  most 
part  voracious  and  noxious.     We  subdivide  them  into 

Ploceus  (The  Weavers),  Pyrgita  (Sparrows),  Fringilla  (Finches),  Cardu- 
elis  (Goldfinches),  Linaria  (Linnets)  to  which  belongs  the  Canary  Bird, 
Vidua  (Widows),  Coccothraustes  (Grossbeaks),  Pitylus,  and  Pyrrhula  or 
(Bullfinches). 

LoxiA,  Briss. 
The  Crossbills  have  a  compressed  beak,  and  the  two  mandibles  so  strongly 
curved,  that  then*  points  cross  each  other,  sometimes  on  one  side  sometimes 
on  the  other.  This  singular  beak  enables  them  to  tear  out  the  seeds  from 
under  the  scales  of  the  pine-cones.  The  European  species  is  very  common 
wherever  there  are  evergreen  trees;  it  is, 

Loxia  curvirostra,  L.  (The  Crossbill. )  The  plumage  of  the  young  male 
is  of  a  vivid  red,  with  brown  wings;  that  of  the  adult,  and  of  the  female,  is 
gi-eenish  above,  yellowish  beneath. 

We  cannot  remove  from  the  Bullfinches  and  tlie  Crossbills 

CORYTHUS,  CuV. 
The  point  of  whose  completely  arched  beak  curves  over  the  lower  mandible. 
The  most  known  species  is 

Loxia  enudeator,  L.  The  Pine  Grosbeak  inhabits  the  north  of  botli  con- 
tinents, and  lives  in  the  same  way  as  the  Crossbill.  It  is  red,  or  reddish, 
the  feathers  of  the  tail  and  wings  black  edged  with  white. 


PASSERINE.  139 

CoLius,  Gm.(l) 
The  Colies  also  approximate  considerably  to  the  preceding  birds.  Their 
beak  is  short,  tliick,  conical,  and  somewhat  compressed,  its  two  mandibles 
being-  arcuated,  but  without  extending  beyond  each  other;  the  quills  of 
their  tail  are  cuneiform,  and  very  long;  their  thimib,  as  in  Cypselus,  is 
capable  of  being  du'ected  forwards  like  the  other  toes;  their  fine  and  silky 
feathers  are  generally  cinereous.  They  inhabit  Africa  and  India,  climb 
something  in  the  manner  of  Parrots,  live  in  flocks,  build  many  of  their  nests 
on  the  same  bush,  and  sleep  suspended  to  its  branches  in  crowds,  with  the 
head  downwards.  They  feed  on  fruit. 
Here  also  come  the 

BuPHAGA,  Briss. 

The  Beef-Eaters  form  a  small  genus  in  which  the  beak  is  of  a  moderate 
length,  cylindi'ical  at  the  beginning,  and  inflated  (both,  mandibles)  near  the 
end,  which  terminates  in  a  blunt  point.  They  use  it  to  compress  the  skin 
of  cattle  in  order  to  force  out  the  lai'vac  of  the  CEstrus  lodged  in  it,  on  which 
they  feed. 

One  species  only  is  known,  and  that  is  from  Africa;  brownish,  with  a  mode- 
rate sized  cimeiform  tail;  as  large  as  a  Thrush.     It  is  the  JBuphaga  africana. 

Cassicus,  Cuv. 
A  large  and  exactly  conical  beak,  thick  at  base,  and  very  sharp  at  the  point; 
small  round  nostrils,  pierced  on  the  sides;. the  commissure  of  the  mandibles 
forms  a  broken  line,  or  is  angular  like  that  of  the  Starlings.  They  are 
American  birds,  whose  manners  are  similar  to  those  of  the  last  mentioned 
ones,  living  hke  them  in  flocks,  frequently  constructing  their  nests  close 
together,  and  sometimes  with  much  art.  They  feed  on  grain  and  Insects, 
and  do  great  injury  to  cultivated  grounds.  They  are  now  divided  into 
Cassicus  proper.  Icterus,  &c.  •  Among  the  latter  we  distinguish  a  species 
with  a  somewhat  shorter  beak,  the 

Icterus  pecoris.  Tern.  (The  Cow  Bunting.)  A  violet  black;  head  and 
neck  a  brown  grey.  Lives  in  flocks  among  cattle;  but  the  most  peculiar 
trait  in  its  habits  is  that,  like  the  Cuckoo,  it  lays  its  eggs  in  other  bird's  nests. 

Sturnus,  Lin. 
The  Starlings  have  a  beak  that  is  depressed,  especially  near  the  point. 

We  can  find  no  sufficient  character  to  enable  us  to  distinguish 
from  the  Conirostres  with  certainty  and  precision,  the  different  gen- 
era of  the  family  of  the  Crows,  all  of  which  have  a  similar  internal 
structure  and   external  organs,    only  differing  in    a    (generally) 

(1)  Koxoiti,  the  Greek  name  of  a  small  species  of  Crow. 


140  AYES. 

greater  size,  which  sometimes  enables  them  to  hunt  small  birds:  their 
strong  beak  is  most  commonly  compressed  on  the  sides. 

These  genera  are  three  in  number,  the  Crows,  Birds  of  Paradise, 
and  the  Rollers. 

CoKVus,  Lin. 

The  Crows  have  a  strong  beak,  more  or  less  laterally  flattened,  nostrils 
covered  with  stiff  feathers,  which  incline  forwards.  They  are  very  cunning, 
their  sense  of  smell  is  extremely  acute,  and  they  have,  generally,  a  habit  of 
purloining  articles  totally  useless  to  them,  such  as  pieces  of  money,  &c., 
and  even  of  hiding  them. 

We  more  particularly  call  Crows  or  Ravens,  the  large  species  whose 
beaks  are  the  strongest  in  proportion,  and  in  which  the  ridge  of  the  upper 
mandible  is  the  most  arcuated.     Their  tail  is  either  round  or  square. 

C.  coraXfL..  (The  Raven.)  Is  the  largest  of  the  Passerinse  which  inhabit 
Europe.  Its  size  is  equal  to  that  of  the  Cock.  Its  plumage  is  entirely  black, 
the  tail  is  rounded,  and  the  back  of  the  upper  mandible  arcuated  near  the 
point.  It  is  a  more  solitary  bird  than  the  other  species,  flies  well  and  high, 
scents  carrion  at  the  distance  of  a  league,  and  feeds  also  on  fruit  and  small 
animals.  It  sometimes  carries  off"  poultiy,  builds  on  the  tops  of  high  trees 
or  rocky  cliffs,  is  easily  tamed,  and  may  be  taught  to  speak  tolerably  well. 
It  appears  to  be  found  in  every  part  of  the  globe. 

C.  corone,L.  (The  Crow.)  A  fourth  smaller  than  the  Raven;  the  tail 
more  square,  and  the  beak  less  arcuated  above. 

C.  frugilegus,  L.  (The  Rook.)  Still  smaller  than  the  preceding,  with  a 
straighter  and  more  pointed  beak.  The  circumference  of  the  base  of  the 
latter,  except  when  very  young,  is  divested  of  feathers,  which  is  probably 
occasioned  by  its  habit  of  tlirusting  it  into  the  ground  in  search  of  food. 

The  Jackdaw  is  also  a  Corvus. 

Pica,  Cuv. 

The  upper  mandible  is  more  arcuated  than  the  other,  and  the  tail  long 
and  cuneiform. 

Corvus  pica,  L.  (The  Magpie  of  Europe.)  A  beautiful  bird,  of  a  silky 
black  colour,  with  purple,  blue,  and  gold  reflections;  the  beUy  is  white,  and 
there  is  a  large  spot  of  the  same  colour  on  the  wing.  Its  eternal  chattering 
has  rendered  it  notorious. 

Garkulus,  Cuv. 
The  two  mandibles  of  the  Jays  are  but  little  elongated,  terminating  in  a 
sudden,  and^  nearly  equal  cui*ve;  when  the  tail  is  cuneiform,  it  is  not  very 
long,  and  the  loose  and  slender  feathers  of  the  forehead  stand  more  or  less 
erect  when  the  bird  is  angry. 


PASSERINiE.  141 

Cahtocatactes,  Cuv. 

The  Nutcrackers  have  the  two  mandibles  straight,  equally  pointed,  and 
without  any  curve.     There  is  only  one  species  known. 

Corvus  caryocatactes,  L.  (The  Common  Nutcracker. )  Brown ;  the  whole 
body  spotted  with  wliite.  It  builds  in  the  hollows  of  trees,  in  dense  moun- 
tain forests,  cUmbs  trees  and  perforates  tlieir  bark  hke  the  Woodpeckers, 
feeds  on  all  kinds  of  fruit,  insects,  and  small  birds. 

CoRAciAs,  Lin. 
The  Rollers  have  a  strong  beak,  compressed  near  the  point,  which  is  a 
little  hooked.  The  nostrils  are  oblong,  placed  at  the  edge  of  the  feathers, 
but  without  being  cov^ei-ed  by  them;  the  feet  shoi-t  and  stout.  They  belong 
to  the  eastern  continent,  and  are  like  the  Jays  in  their  habits  and  in  the  loose 
feathers  on  the  forehead.     Their  colours  are  vivid,  but  rarely  harmonious. 

Pakadis^a,  Lin. 
The  Birds  of  Paradise,  like  the  Crows,  have  a  strong,  straight,  compressed 
beak,  without  any  emarginations,  and  with  covered  nostrils;  but  the  influ- 
ence of  the  climate  they  inhabit,  an  influence  extended  to  birds  of  several 
other  genera,  gives  a  velvet  tissue  to  tlie  feathers  which  cover  these  nostrils, 
and  frequently  a  metallic  lustre,  at  the  same  time  that  it  singularly  developes 
those  which  cover  several  parts  of  the  body.  They  are  natives  of  New 
Guinea  and  of  the  adjoining  islands,  are  said  to  live  on  fruits,  and  to  be  par- 
ticxdarly  fond  of  aromatics. 

The  feathers  on  the  flanks  of  some  of  them  are  silky,  and  singularly  ex- 
tended into  bunches  longer  than  the  body,  which  give  such  a  hold  to  the 
wind  that  they  are  very  often  swept  away  by  it.  There  are  also  two  bearded 
filaments  adhering  to  the  rump,  which  are  as  long  as,  and  even  longer  than 
the  feathers  on  the  flanks. 

P.  apoda,  L.  Size  of  a  Thrush,  maronne ;  top  of  the  head  andneck  yellow ; 
circumference  of  the  beak  and  tlii'oat  of  an  emerald  green.  It  is  the  male 
of  this  species  wliich  is  ornamented  with  those  long  bundles  of  yellowish 
feathers  employed  by  the  ladies  as  plumes. 


FAMILY  IV. 

TENUIROSTRES. 

This  family  comprehends  the  remaining  birds  of  the  first  division; 
those  in  which  the  beak  is  slender,  elongated,  sometimes  straight, 
and  sometimes  more  or  less  arcuated,  and  without  any  emargination. 
They  are  to  the  Conirostres  what  the  Motacillffi  are  to  the  other 
Dentirostres. 


142  AVES. 

SiTTA,  Lin. 

The  Nuthatches  have  a  straight,  prismatic,  pointed  beak,  compressed  near 
the  point,  which  they  employ  Mke  the  Woodpeckers  to  perforate  the  bark 
of  trees,  and  in  withdrawing  the  larvae  contained  In  it;  but  their  tongue  is 
not  extensible,  and  although  they  climb  in  every  direction,  they  have  but 
one  toe  behind,  which,  it  is  true,  is  a  strong  one.  The  tail  is  of  no  use  in 
supporting  them,  as  is  the  case  with  the  Woodpeckers  and  True  Creeners. 

Ceethia,  Lin. 
Or  the  Creepers,  have  an  arcuated  beak,  but  that  is  the  only  common  char- 
acter they  possess.  The  True  Creepers,  so  called  from  their  habit  of 
climbing  trees  like  Woodpeckers,  in  doing  which  they  make  use  of  their 
tail  as  a  prop  or  supporter,  are  known  by  the  quills  of  the  tail,  which  are 
worn,  and  terminate  in  a  stiff  point,  like  those  of  the  same  birds.  They  are 
divided  into  various  subgenera. 

Trochilus,  Lin. 
The  Hummingbirds,  so  celebrated  for  the  metallic  lusti-e  of  their  plumage, 
and  chiefly  for  those  plates,  brilliant  as  precious  stones,  which  are  formed 
by  scaly  feathers  of  a  pecuhar  structure,  on  their  throat  or  head,  have  a  long 
slender  beak,  enclosing  a  tongue,  which  they  can  protrude  at  will,  Mke  that 
of  the  Woodpeckers  (and  by  the  same  mechanism),  which  is  split  almost 
to  its  base,  forming  two  filaments,  employed,  as  is  asserted,  in  taking  up  the 
nectar  from  flowers.  They  also,  however,  feed  on  small  insects,  for  we 
have  found  their  stomach  filled  with  them.  Their  very  small  feet,  broad 
tail,  excessively  long  and  narrow  wings,  short  humerus  and  large  sternum, 
which  is  without  emargination,  all  contribute  to  form  a  system  adapted  for 
great  power  of  flight;  similar  to  that  of  the  Swallows.  The  narrowness  of 
their  wing  is  caused  by  the  rapid  abbreviation  of  its  quills.  By  these  means, 
they  balance  themselves  in  air  with  nearly  as  much  facility  as  certain  Flies, 
and  it  is  thus  that  they  hum  about  flowers  and  fly  with  more  propoilionate 
rapidity  than  any  other  bird-  They  five  singly,  defend  theu:  nests  with 
courage,  and  fight  desperately  with  each  other. 

Upupa,  Lin. 
The  Hoopoes  have  an  ornament  on  the  head  formed  of  a  double  range   of 
long  feathers,  which  they  can  erect  at  will.     The  subgenera  are  Promerops 
and  Epimachus. 

The  second  and  smallest  division  of  the  Passerinae  connprehends 
those  in  which  the  external  toe,  which  is  nearly  as  long  as  the  mid- 
dle one,  is  united  to  it  as  far  as  the  penultimate  articulation.  We 
make  but  a  single  group  of  them,  the 


PASSERINE.  143 

SYNDACTYLY, 
Which  has  long  been  divided  into  several  genera. 

Merops,  Lin. 
The  Bee-eaters  have  an  elongated  beak,  triangular  at  base,  slightly  arcuated 
and  terminating  in  a  sharp  point.  There  is  a  double  emargination  on  each 
side  of  the  hind  part  of  the  sternum.  Theii-  long,  pointed  wings,  and  short 
feet  render  their  flight  similar  to  tliat  of  Swallows.  They  pursue  insects  in 
gfreat  flocks,  especially  bees,  wasps,  8cc.  and  it  is  remarkable,  that  they  are 
never  stung  by  them. 

Pkionites,  lllig. 
The  Motmots  have  their  feet  and  carriage,  but  differ  in  the  beak  which  is 
stronger,  the  edges  of  both  mandibles  being  serrated,  and  in  their  tongue, 
which,  like  that  of  the  Toucans,  is  barbed.  They  are  beautiful  birds,  as 
large  as  the  Magpie;  the  plumage  on  the  head  loose  as  in  the  Jays,  and  a 
long  cuneiform  tail;  the  stems  of  the  two  middle  quills  being  stripped  of 
their  webs  for  a  short  distance  near  the  extremities,  gives  to  the  whole  a 
singular  appearance.  They  fly  badly,  are  solitary,  build  in  holes,  feed  on 
insects,  and  even  on  small  birds. 

Alcedo,  Lin. 
The  Kingfishers  have  shorter  feet  than  the  Bee-eaters,  and  the  beak  much 
longer,  which  is  straight,  angular,  and  pointed;  the  tongue  and  tail  are  very 
short.  They  feed  on  small  fish  which  tliey  capture  by  precipitating  them- 
selves into  the  water  from  some  branch  where  they  have  remained  perched, 
watching  for  their  prey.  They  nestle  like  Bee-eaters  in  holes  on  the  banks 
of  streams,  and  are  found  in  both  continents. 

ToDus,  Lin. 
The  Todies  are  small  birds  of  America  resembling  the  Kingfishers  in  their 
general  form  as  well  as  in  their  feet  and  elongated  beak,  but  the  latter  is 
horizontally  flattened,  and  obtuse  at  the  point.     The  tarsus  also  is  higher, 
and  the  tail  not  so  short.     They  feed  on  flies  and  build  on  the  ground. 

BucEROs,  Lin. 
The  Hombills  are  large  birds  of  Africa  and  India,  whose  enormous  dentated 
beak  is  studded  with  excrescences  which  sometimes  equal  in  size  the  beak 
itself,  and  which  are  always  of  considerable  extent  above.  This  renders 
them  very  remarkable,  and  allies  them  to  the  Toucans;  while,  at  the  same 
time,  theu'  cari'iage  and  habits  approximate  them  to  tlae  Crows,  and  their 
feet  to  the  Bee-eaters  and  the  Kingfishers.  The  shape  of  these  excrescen- 
ces on  the  beak  varies  with  age,  and  in  tlie  very  young  bii'd  they  are  not 
even  visible;  the  interior  is  generally  cellular.  They  live  on  all  sorts  of  food, 
eat  soft  fruits,  hunt  mice,  small  bu-ds,  reptiles,  and  do  not  even  despise 
carrion. 


144  AVES. 

ORDER  III. 

SCANSORIiE. 

This  order  is  composed  of  those  birds  whose  external  toe  is  di- 
rected backwards  Hke  the  thumb,  by  which  conformation  they  are 
the  better  enabled  to  support  the  weight  of  their  bodies,  and  of  which 
certain  genera  take  advantage  in  clinging  to  and  climbing  upon 
trees.  It  is  from  this  that  they  have  received  the  common  name  of 
Climbing  Birds,  which  in  strictness  is  not  applicable  to  all  of  them, 
as  there  are  many  true  Climbers  which  by  the  disposition  of  their 
toes  cannot  belong  to  this  order,  instances  of  which  we  have  already 
seen  in  the  Creeper  and  Nuthatch, 

The  Scansoria3  usually  nestle  in  the  hollows  of  old  trees;  their 
powers  of  flight  are  middling;  their  food,  like  that  of  the  Passerinas, 
consists  of  insects  or  fruit,  in  proportion  as  their  beak  is  more  or 
less  stout;  some  of  them,  the  Woodpeckers  for  instance,  have  pecu- 
liar means  for  obtaining  it. 

Galbula,  Briss. 

The  Jacamars  are  closely  allied  to  the  Kingfishers  by  their  elongated  sharp- 
pointed  beak,  the  upper  ridge  of  which  is  angular,  and  by  then*  short  feet, 
the  anterior  toes  of  which  are  almost  wholly  united;  these  toes,  however, 
are  not  precisely  the  same  as  those  of  the  Kingfishers;  their  plumage  more- 
over is  not  so  smooth,  and  always  has  a  metallic  lustre.  They  are  solitary 
birds,  that  live  in  wet  forests,  feed  on  insects,  and  buUd  on  low  branches. 
The  American  species  have  a  longer  and  perfectly  straight  beak. 

Picus,  Lin. 
The  Woodpeckers  are  well  characterized  by  their  long,  straight,  angular 
beak,  the  end  of  wliich  is  compressed  into  a  wedge,  and  fitted  for  split- 
ing  the  bark  of  trees;  by  their  slender  tongue,  armed  near  the  tip  with  spines 
that  curve  backwards,  which  by  the  action  of  the  elastic  horns  of  tlie  hyold 
bone  can  be  tlu'ust  far  out  of  the  beak,  and  by  their  tail,  composed  of  ten 
quiUs  with  stiff  and  elastic  stems,  which  acts  as  a  prop  in  supporting  them 
while  they  are  chmbing.  They  are  Climbers  par  excellence:  they  wander 
over  trees  in  every  direction,  striking  the  bark  with  their  beaks,  and  insin- 
uating their  long  tongue  into  its  cracks  and  crevices  to  obtain  tlie  larvx  of 
insects,  on  which  they  feed.  Fearful  and  wary,  they  pass  most  of  their  time 
in  a  solitary  manner,  but  at  a  certain  season  they  may  frequently  be  heard 


SCANSORI^.  145 

tapping-  loudly  and  rapidly  on  a  dry  branch.  They  build  once  a  year  in 
holes  of  trees,  and  each  sex  alternately  broods  upon  the  eggs  until  tlicy  we 
hatched. 

YuNx,  Lin. 

The  Wrynecks  have  the  protractile  tongue  of  the  Woodpeckers,  which  is 
also  moved  by  tlie  same  kind  of  mechanism,  but  tlie  spines  are  wanting; 
their  straight  and  pointed  beak  is  nearly  round,  and  without  any  angles?  the 
quills  of  their  tail  are  hke  tliose  of  Birds  in  general.  Their  mode  of  life  is 
that  of  the  Woodpeckers,  except  that  they  climb  but  seldom. 

CucuLus,  Lin. 
The  Cuckoos  have  a  middling,  well  cleft,  compressed,  and  slightly  arcuated 
beak;  the  tail  long.  They  live  on  Insects,  and  are  Birds  of  passage. 
They  are  celebrated  for  the  singular  habit  of  laying  their  eggs  in  the  nests 
of  other  insectivorous  Birds,  and,  what  is  not  less  extraoi'dinary,  these  latter, 
which  are  often  a  considerably  smaller  species,  take  as  much  care  of  the 
young  Cuckoo  as  of  their  own  true  offspi-ing",  and  that  too,  even  when  its 
introduction  has  been  preceded,  which  often  happens,  by  the  destruction 
of  their  eggs.     The  rationale  of  this  phenomenon  is  unknown. 

Malcoha,  Vaill. 
A  very  stout  beak,  round  at  base,  and  arcuated  near  the  point,  with  a  large 
naked  space  about  the  eyes.     The  nostrils  of  some  are  round,  and  placed 
near  the  base  of  the  beak,  in  others  they  are  nan'ow  and  situated  neai'  its  edge. 
They  are  natives  of  Ceylon;  and,  as  it  is  said,  live  chiefly  on  fruit, 

ScYTHROPs,  Lath. 

The  beak  stiU  longer  and  stouter  than  that  of  Malcoha,  and  grooved  on  each 
side  with  two  shallow  longitudinal  fuiTows;  circumference  of  the  eyes 
naked;  nostrils  round.  These  birds  approach  the  Toucans  in  their  beak; 
but  their  simple  tongue,  which  is  not  ciliated,  separates  them.  One  species 
only  is  known,  which  is  as  large  as  a  Crow,  whitish,  with  a  grey  mantle; 
found  in  New  Holland. 

Bucco,  Lin. 
The  Barbets  have  a  thick  conical  beak,  inflated  on  the  sides  of  its  base,  and 
furnished  with  five  bundles  of  stiff  hairs  directed  forwards;  one  behind  the 
nostril,  one  on  each  side  of  the  base  of  the  lower  jaw,  and  the  fifth  under 
its  symphysis.  The  wings  are  short,  and  their  proportions  are  heavy,  as  is 
also  their  flight.  They  hve  on  Insects,  and  will  attiick  small  Birds;  tiiey  also 
eat  fruit.     They  build  in  the  hollows  of  trees. 

Trogon,  Lin. 
The  Couroucoui,  along  with  the  hairy  fasciculi  of  the  Barbets,  have  a  short 
T 


146  AVES. 

beak,  which  is  more  broad  than  high,  and  curved  from  the  base,  its  upper 
ridge  arcuated  and  blunt.  Their  small  feet,  feathered  nearly  down  to  the 
toes,  long  broad  tail,  fine  light  and  dense  plimiage,  give  them  quite  a  dif- 
ferent air.  Some  part  of  their  plumage  usually  has  a  metallic  lustre, 
the  remainder  being  coloured  more  or  less  vividly.  They  build  in  hoUow 
trees,  live  on  insects,  and  remain  in  a  sohtary  and  quiet  mood  on  low 
branches  in  the  centre  of  marshy  forests,  never  being  seen  on  the  wing  ex- 
cept during  the  morning  and  evening.     They  are  found  in  both  continents. 

Crotophaga,  Lin. 

The  Mni  are  known  by  their  beak,  which  is  thick,  compressed,  arcuated, 
entire,  elevated,  and  surmounted  with  a  vertical  and  trenchant  crest. 

Two  species  are  known,  Crotophaga  Tnajor  and  Croto  ani,  both  from  the 
hot  and  low  districts  of  America.  Their  tarsi  are  strong  and  elevated,  the 
tail  long  and  rounded,  and  the  pliunage  black. 

These  Bu'ds  feed  on  Insects  and  grain,  and  live  in  flocks,  several  couples 
laying  their  eggs,  and  even  brooding-over  them  in  the  same  nest,  which, 
together  with  the  branches  that  support  it,  is  of  a  size  proportioned  to  the 
number  of  couples  that  have  constructed  it.  They  are  easily  tamed,  and 
may  be  taught  to  speak,  but  their  flesh  has  a  disagreeable  odour. 

Ramphastos,  Lin. 

The  Toucans  are  easily  distinguished  from  all  other  Birds  by  their  enormous 
beak,  which  is  almost  as  thick  and  as  long  as  their  body,  light  and  cellular  in- 
ternally, arcuated  near  the  end,  and  irregularly  indented  along  its  edges;  and 
by  their  long,  narrow,  and  cihated  tongue.  They  are  confined  to  the  hot 
climates  of  America,  where  they  live  in  small  flocks,  feeding  on  fruit  and 
Insects;  they  also  devour  other  Bu'ds'  eggs,  and  their  callow  ofispring.  The 
structure  of  their  beak  compels  them  to  swallow  their  food  without  mastica- 
tion. When  they  haA'e  seized  it,  they  toss  it  into  the  air  to  swallow  it  with 
more  facility. 

PsiTTACus,  Lin. 

The  Parrots  have  a  stout,  hard,  solid  beak,  rounded  on  all  sides  and  en- 
veloped at  base  by  a  membrane  in  which  the  nostrils  are  pieixed,  and  a  thick 
fleshy  and  rovuided  tongue;  two  circumstances  which  give  them  the  great- 
est facility  in  imitating  the  hmnan  voice.  Their  inferior  larynx,  which  is 
complicated  and  furnished  on  each  side  with  its  three  muscles,  also  contri- 
butes to  this  facility.  They  feed  on  aU  sorts  of  fruit,  climb  among  the 
branches  of  trees  by  the  aid  of  theu"  beak  and  claws,  and  build  in  hoUow 
trees.  Their  voice  is  naturally  harsh  and  disagreeable,  and  they  are  almost 
universally  ornamented  with  the  brightest  colours,  hardly  any  of  them  being 
found  beyond  the  torrid  zone.  They  exist  however  in  both  continents,  the 
species  of  course  differing  in  each.  Every  large  island  even  has  its  pecu- 
liar species,  the  short  wings  of  these  birds  not  allowing  them  to  cross  any 
g^eat  extent  of  water.     The  Parrots,  consequently,  are  very  numerous:  they 


SCANSORI^.  147 

are  subdivided  by  the  forms  of  their  tails  and  some  other  characters.    To 
these  subdivisions  belong  the  Macaws,  Paroquets,  Cockatoos,  &c. 

There  are  two  African  birds,  closely  allied  to  each  other,  and 
generally  placed  among  the  Scansorioe,  which  appear  to  me  have 
some  analogy  witli  the  Gallinacea^,  and  especially  with  the  Hoccos. 

They  have  the  tail  and  wings  of  the  Hoccos,  and  like  them  perch 
on  trees;  the  beak  is  short,  and  the  upper  mandible  gibbous;  there 
is  a  short  membrane  between  the  fore-toes,  but  the  external  one,  it 
is  true,  is  often  directed  backwards  like  that  of  the  Ululaj.  Their 
nostrils,  also,  are  simply  pierced  in  the  horn  of  the  beak,  the  edges 
of  the  mandibles  are  dentated,  and  the  sternum  (at  least  that  of  the 
Touraco)  has  not  those  large  emarginations,  so  common  in  the  Gal- 
linacese.   There  are  two  genera  of  these  birds:  the  first  is, 

CoKYTHAIX,  Illig. 
Or  the  Touracos,  in  which  the  beak  does  not  mount  on  the  forehead,  and 
the  head  is  furnished  with  an  erectile  tuft.     The  most  common  species, 

Cuculus  persa,  L.,  is  found  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  It 
is  a  beautiful  green,  witli  part  of  the  quills  of  the  wings  crimson.  It  builds 
in  hollow  trees,  and  feeds  on  fruit.     Tlie  second  is  the 

MusoPHAGA,  Isert. 
Or  the  Plaintain-eaters,  so  called  because  their  principal  food  is  the  fruit  of 
the  banana.     They  are  characterised  by  the  base  of  the  beak  forming  a 
disk,  which  partly  covers  the  forehead.     The  species  known  is 

J^f.  violacea,  Vieill.  Circumference  of  the  eyes  naked  and  red;  violet- 
coloured  plumage;  occiput  and  primary  quills  of  the  wings,  crimson;  a  white 
line  passes  below  the  naked  space  round  the  eye.  Inhabits  Guinea  and 
Senegal. 


ORDER  IV. 

GALLINACEtE.— GALLiNiE,  Lin. 

These  birds  are  so  called  from  their  affinity  with  the  Domestic 
Cock,  and  like  it,  generally  have  the  upper  mandible  arched,  the 
nostrils  pierced  in  a  broad  membranous  space  at  the  base  of  the  beak 
and  covered  by  a  cartilaginous  scale;  a  heavy  carriage,  short  wings, 
and  the  bony  sternum  diminished  by  two  emarginations,  so  wide  and 


148  AVES. 

deep  that  they  occupy  nearly  the  whole  sides,  its  crest  being  trunca- 
ted obliquely  forwards  so  that  the  sharp  point  of  the  fourchette  is 
only  joined  to  it  by  a  ligament,  circumstances  which,  by  greatly  im- 
pairing the  strength  of  the  pectoral  muscles,  render  it  difficult  for 
them  to  fly.  Their  tail  generally  consists  of  fourteen  quills,  and 
sometimes  of  eighteen.  With  the  exception  of  the  Hocco  they  all 
lay  their  eggs  on  the  ground,  on  a  few  carelessly  arranged  blades  of 
straw  or  grass. 

This  order  is  chiefly  composed  of  one  very  natural  family,  remark- 
able for  having  furnished  us  with  most  of  our  domestic  poultry,  and 
abundance  of  excellent  game. 

Alectoe,  Merr.(l) 
The  Hoccos  are  large  Gallinacese  of  America,  which  resemble  Turkeys,  with 
a  broad,  rounded  tail,  formed  of  large  and  stiff  quills.   They  live  in  the  woods, 
feed  on  buds  and  fruit,  perch  and  build  on  trees,  are  very  social,  and  easily 
domesticated. 

The  remaining  genera  belonging  to  this  division  are  Ourax  (Stone  Bird), 
Penelope  (The  Guans  or  Yacous),  Ortalida,  and  Opisthocomus. 

Pavo,  Lin. 

The  Peacocks  are  characterized  by  an  aigrette  or  crest  on  the  head,  and  by 
the  coverts  of  the  tail  of  the  male  being  larger  than  its  quills,  and  capable 
of  being  erected  so  as  to  foi-m  a  circle.  The  sliining,  las  and  silky  barbs  of 
these  feathers,  and  tlie  ocellated  spots  that  decoi-ate  their  esti-emities,  are 
well  known  in  the 

P.  crlstatusylj,  (The  Common  Peacock.)  Tliis  superb  bird,  originally 
from  the  north  of  India,  was  introduced  into  Europe  by  Alexander.  Its 
magnificent  plumage  is  even  surpassed  in  brilliancy  by  that  of  the  wild  ones. 

Meleagkis,  Lin.  (2) 

The  Turkeys  have  their  head  and  upper  pait  of  the  neck  invested  with  a 
plumeless  and  papillated  skin;  an  appendage  \mder  the  throat,  and  another 
conical  one  on  the  forehead,  wliich,  in  the  male,  when  excited  by  passion, 
becomes  so  inflated  and  long,  as  to  hang  over  tlie  pomt  of  tlie  beak.  From 
the  lower  part  of  the  neck  of  the  adult  male  hangs  a  tuft  or  tassel  of  stiff 
hairs;  the  coverts  of  the  tail,  shorter  and  stlffer  than  in  the  Peacock,  can  be 
erected  and  displayed  irf  the  same  way.  The  tarsi  of  the  male  are  armed 
with  weak  spurs.     But  one  species  was  known  for  a  long  time. 

Meleagris  gallo-pavo,  L.     (The  Common  Turkey.)    Introduced  into  Eu- 


(1)  Alector  is  the  Greek  name  of  the  Cock. 

(2)  Meieagris  is  the  Greek  name  of  the  Guinea-Hen,   erroneously  ap- 
plied by  LimiKus  to  the  Tm-key. 


GALLINACEiE.  149 

rope  fi-om  America  in  tlie  sixteenth  century.  The  si:ie  of  this  noble  bird, 
and  tlxe  goodness  of  its  flesh,  have  rendered  it  extremely  common.  The 
Wild  Turkey  of  America  is  of  a  greenish  brown,  with  a  (^pper  gloss. 
A  second  species,  however,  31.  ocellata,  Cuv.  has  lately  been  described,  al- 
most equal  to  the  Peacock  in  the  brUhancy  of  its  coloui-s,  and  particularly 
in  the  sapphire  coloured  spots  sun-ounded  with  cu-cles  of  gold  and  i-uby, 
which  decorate  the  tail.     It  was  captured  in  the  bay  of  Honduras. 

NcMiDA,  Lin. 

The  Guinea-fowb,  or  Pintados,  have  a  naked  head,  fleshy  wattles  at  the 
bottom  of  the  cheeks,  a  short  tail,  and  the  cranium  generally  surmounted 
with  a  callous  crest. 

iV".  mekagris,  L.  (The  Common  Guinea-Hen),  originally  from  Africa, 
has  a  slate-coloui'ed  plumage,  every  where  sprinkled  with  small,  white, 
round  spots.  In  a  wild  state  they  live  in  lai-ge  flocks,  and  prefer  the  vici- 
nity of  marshes.     There  are  two  species.     The  great  genus 

Phasianus,  Lin. 
Or  that  of  the  Pheasants,  is  characterized  by  the  cheeks  being  partly  desti- 
tute of  feathers,  and  covered  with  a  red  skin,  and  by  the  tectiform  tail,  in 
which  the  feathers  are  variously  disposed. 

This  great  genus  Is  now  divided  into  various  subgenera,  such  as  Gallus 
(our  common  Cock  and  Hen)  of  which  several  wild  species  are  known. 
Pheasants  properly  so  called  (Common  Pheasant  of  Europe,  Gold  and  SUver 
Pheasants  of  China,  &c. ),  Tragcrpan,  &c. 

Tetrao,  Lin. 

This  also  is  a  great  genus,  characterized  by  a  naked  and  most  generally  red 
band,  wliich  occupies  the  place  of  the  eye-brow.  It  is  divided  into  subge- 
nera as  follows. 

Tetrad,  Lath. 

The  feet  of  Ch-ous  are  covered  with  feathers,  and  are  without  spurs. 
Those  to  which  this  name  is  more  particularly  appHed  have  a  round  or 
forked  tail  and  naked  toes. 

In  some  the  feathers  on  each  side  of  the  neck  of  the  males  are  turned  up 
like  a  mantlet,  or  two  scrolls:  then*  habits  have  an  affinity  with  those  of  the 
Tui'key.     Such  are 

Tetr.  umhellus  and  togatus,  Gm. ;  called  Partridge  in  New  England,  and 
Pheasant  in  Pennsylvania.     Found  in  the  mountain  forests. 

Tetr.  cupido,  Gm.  (The  Pinnated  Grous.)  Variegated  with  brown  and 
fawn  colour;  tail  brown?  tarsi  feathered  down  to  the  toes;  the  feathers  on 
the  bottom  of  the  male's  neck  turn  up  into  two  pointed  scrolls,  beneath 
which  is  a  naked  skin,  which  he  inflates  like  a  bladder;  his  voice  sounds 
like  a  trumpet.  Found  on  extensive  plains,  and  is  such  delicious  food  that 
laws  have  been  passed  to  preserve  them.     The  name  of 


\ 


150  AVBS. 

Laoofus, 

Or  Ptarmigan,  is  more  particularly  applied  to  those  species  which  have 
a  round  or  square  tail  and  whose  toes  are  feathered  as  well  as  the  legs. 

Tdr.  albus,  Gm.,  called  of  Hudson's  Bay.  (The  White  Ptarmig'an.) 
From  the  whole  North;  is  larger,  and  its  summer  plumage  more  red;  its  belly 
remains  white. 

Perbix,  Briss. 
Partridges  have  the  tarsi  naked  like  the  toes.     Among  them  the 

FnANCoiiNtrs,  Tem. 
Is  distinguished  by  a  longer  and  stronger  beak;  a  larger  tail,  and,  generally 
speaking,  by  stout  spurs. 

Common  Partridges 
Have  a  somewhat  weaker  beak;  the  spurs  of  the  males  are  either  short, 
or  mere  simple  tubercles;  they  are  deficient  in  the  female. 

COTURKIX. 

Quails  are  smaller  than  Partridges,  with  a  slenderer  beak  and  shorter  tail; 
no  red  eye-brow  nor  spurs. 

The  Partridges  and  Quaiis  of  America 
Have  a  stouter,  shorter,  and  more  convex  beak;  the  tail  is  somewhat 
larger.     They  perch  on  bushes,  and,  when  distui-bed,  even  on  trees.     Se- 
veral of  them  migrate  like  the  Quails  of  Europe.     There  are  some  othei* 
subgenera. 

TiNAMus,  Lath. 
Or  the  Tinamous  is  a  genus  of  American  birds  very  remarkable  for  a  slen- 
der and  long  neck,  (although  their  tarsi  are  short)  covered  with  feathers,  the 
tips  of  whose  barbs  are  slender  and  shghtly  curled,  which  gives  a  very  pe- 
culiar air  to  that  part  of  their  plumage.  The  beak  is  long,  slender,  and 
blunt  at  the  end;  somewhat  arched,  with  a  little  groove  on  each  side;  the 
nostrils  are  pierced  in  the  middle  of  each  side,  and  penetrate  obhquely 
backwards.  Their  wings  are  short,  and  they  have  scarcely  any  tail.  The 
membrane  between  the  base  of  the  toes  is  very  short.  Their  thumb,  re- 
duced to  a  spur,  cannot  reach  the  ground.  The  ch-cumference  of  the  eye 
is  partly  naked.  They  either  perch  on  low  branches  of  trees,  or  liide  among 
tall  grass;  they  feed  on  fruits  and  insects,  and  their  flesh  is  good.  Their 
size  varies  from  that  of  the  Pheasant  down  to  that  of  the  Quail,  some  of 
them  are  even  still  smaller. 

CoLUMBA,  Lin. 
The  Pigeons  may  be  considered  as  forming  a  slight  transition  from  the 
Gallinace^  to  the  Passerinae.     Like  the  former,  theu-  beak  is  vaulted,  the 


GALLINACEiE.  151 

nostrils  perforated  in  a  broad  membranous  space,  and  covered  with  a  carti- 
laginous scale,  which  even  forms  a  bulge  at  the  base  of  the  bill;  the  bony 
sternum  is  deeply  and  doubly  emarginated,  although  somewhat  differently  f 
the  crop  extremely  dilated,  and  the  lower  larynx  furnished  with  but  a  single 
proper  muscle;  but  there  is  no  other  membrane  between  the  base  of  their 
toes  than  that  which  results  from  the  continuity  of  tlie  edges.  Their  tail  is 
composed  of  twelve  quills.  They  fly  well,  Hve  in  a  state  of  monogamy, 
build  on  trees  or  in  fissures  among  rocks,  and  lay  but  few  eggs  at  a  time, 
generally  two;  it  is  true  they  lay  frequentiy.  The  male  assists  his  mate  in 
the  business  of  brooding.  They  nourish  their  young  by  disgorging  mace- 
rated grain  into  their  crop.  They  form  but  one  genus,  which  naturalists 
have  attempted  to  di%nde  into  several  subgenera,  from  the  greater  or  less 
strength  of  the  bill  and  the  proportions  of  the  feet. 

They  are  tiie  Columbi-Gallines  (the  Crowned  Pigeon  of  India,  almost  as 
large  as  a  Turkey);  Columbaproper  (Cushat,  Stock  Dove,  Turtle  Dove,  Ring 
Dove,  &c.);  and  Vinago,  of  which  latter  there  are  but  few  species,  and  all 
inhabiting  the  torrid  zone  of  the  eastern  continent. 


ORDER  V. 

GRALLATORI^.— Gralls,  Lin. 

The  birds  of  this  order  derive  their  name  from  their  habits,  and 
from  the  conformation  which  causes  them.  They  are  known  by  the 
nudity  of  the  lower  part  of  their  legs,  and  most  generally  by  the 
height  of  their  tarsi;  two  circumstances  which  enable  them  to  enter 
the  water  to  a  certain  depth  without  wetting  their  feathers;  to  wade 
through  it  and  seize  Fish  by  means  of  their  neck  and  bill,  the  length 
of  which  is  usually  proportioned  to  that  of  the  legs.  Those  which 
are  furnished  with  a  strong  bill  feed  on  Fish  and  Reptiles,  while  such 
as  have  a  weak  one  consume  Worms  and  Insects.  A  very  few 
feed  partially  on  grain,  and  they  alone  live  at  a  distance  from  rivers, 
&c.  The  external  toe  is  most  commonly  united  at  its  base  with 
that  of  the  middle  one,  by  means  of  a  short  membrane;  sometimes 
there  are  two  similar  membranes,  and  at  others  they  are  entirely 
wanting  and  the  toes  are  completely  separated;  it  sometimes  also 
happens,  though  rarely,  that  they  are  bordered  all  along,  or  palma- 
ted  to  the  very  end;  in  fine,  the  thumb  is  deficient  in  several  genera; 
circumstances,  all  of  which  have  an  influence  on  their  mode  of  life, 
which  is  more  or  less  aquatic.     Almost  all  these  birds,  the  Ostriches 


152  ,      AVES. 

and  Cassowaries  excepted,  have  long  wings,  and  fly  well;  during 
which  action  they  extend  they  legs  backwards,  differing  in  this  from 
all  others,  which  fold  them  under  the  belly. 

In  this  order  we  establish  five  principal  families,  and  some  insu- 
lated genera. 

FAMILY  I. 

BREVIPENNES. 

These  birds,  although  similar  in  general  to  the  other  Grallatoriae, 
differ  from  them  greatly  in  one  point — the  shortness  of  the  wings^ 
which  renders  flight  impossible.  The  beak  and  regimen  give  thera 
numerous  affinities  with  the  Gallinacese. 

It  appears  as  if  all  the  muscular  power  which  is  at  the  command 
of  nature,  would  be  insufficient  to  move  such  immense  wings  as 
would  be  required  to  support  their  massive  bodies  in  the  air.  The 
sternum  is  a  simple  buckler,  and  is  deficient  in  that  ridge  which  is 
found  in  all  other  birds.  The  pectoral  muscles  are  thin  and  delicate, 
but  the  posterior  extremities  regain  what  the  wings  have  lost — the 
muscles  of  the  thighs,  and  of  the  legs  in  particular,  being  enormously 
thick  and  stout. 

The  thumb  is  always  deficient.     They  form  two  genera. 

Stkuthio,  Lin. 

The  Ostriches  have  wings  furnished  with  loose  and  flexible  feathers,  but  still 
sufficiently  long  to  increase  their  speed  in  running.  Every  one  knows  the 
elegance  of  these  slender-stemmed  plumes,  the  barbs  of  which,  although 
furnished  with  little  hooks,  always  remain  separate,  contrary  to  wliat  takes 
place  in  most  other  birds.  Their  beak  is  horizontally  depressed,  of  a  mod- 
erate length,  and  blunt  at  the  end;  their  tongue  short,  and  rounded  Uke  a 
crescent;  their  eye  large,  and  the  lid  fringed  with  lashes;  then- legs  and  tarsi 
very  long. 

But  two  species  are  known,  each  of  which  might  form  a  separate  genus. 

Struthio  camelus,  L.  (The  Ostrich  of  the  Eastern  Continent.)  But  two 
toes,  the  external  of  which  is  one  half  shorter  than  its  fellow,  and  has  no  nail. 
This  bird,  so  highly  celebrated  from  the  earliest  ages,  abounds  in  the  sandy 
deserts  of  Arabia  and  Africa.  It  attains  the  height  of  six  or .  eight  feet, 
lives  in  great  troops,  lays  eggs,  each  weighing  nearly  three  pounds,  which, 
in  very  hot  climates,  it  is  contented  with  exposing  in  the  sand  to  the  wai-mth 
of  the  sun,  but  over  wlaich,  out  of  the  tropics,  it  broods  with  great  care, 
defending  them  courageously  every  where.     The  Ostrich  feeds  on  grass, 


GBALLATORIiE.  153 

grain,  &c.,  and  so  obtuse  is  its  sense  of  taste  that  it  swallows  pebbles,  pieces 
of  iron,  copper,  &c.  When  pm-sued  it  dashes  stones  behind  it  with  great 
violence.    No  animal  can  ovei-take  it  in  the  race. 

Strutk.  rhea,  L.  (The  American  Ostrich. )  Is  about  one  half  smaller,  with 
more  thinly  furnished  feathers,  of  a  uniform  grey  coloiu'i  and  particularly 
distinguished  by  its  tlu-ee  toes,  all  having  nails.  Its  plumage  is  gi-eyish, 
browner  on  the  back:  a  black  hne  along  the  back  of  the  neck  in  the  male. 
It  is  as  common  in  the  southern  parts  of  South  America,  as  the  preceding 
one  is  in  Africa.  When  taken  young,  it  is  easily  tamed.  Several  females, 
it  is  said,  lay  in  the  same  nest,  or  rather  the  same  hole,  yellowish  eggs, 
which  are  hatched  by  the  male.     It  is  only  eaten  when  very  young. 

Casuarius,  Briss. 
The  Cassowaries  have  wings  still  shorter  than  those  of  the  Ostrich,  and 
totally  useless,  even  in  running.  There  are  three  toes  to  all  the  feet,  each 
furnished  with  a  nail;  the  barbs  of  their  feathers  are  so  poorly  provided 
with  barbuls,  that  at  a  distance  they  resemble  pendent  hairs.  Two  species 
are  known,  each  of  wliich  might  also  constitute  a  genus. 

Casuarius  vulgaris,  h-  (The  Cassowary.  )The  beak  laterally  compressed; 
head  surmounted  by  a  bony  promhience,  covered  with  a  horny  substance; 
skin  of  the  head  and  top  of  the  neck  naked,  of  an  azure-blue  and  a  fiery  red 
colour,  witli  pendent  caruncles  hke  those  of  the  Turkey;  some  stiff  stems 
in  the  wings,  without  barbs,  which  the  bu'd  uses  as  weapons  in  combat; 
nail  of  the  internal  toe  much  the  strongest.  It  is  the  largest  of  all  birds, 
next  to  the  Ostrich,  and  differs  considerably  from  it  in  its  anatomy.  It  feeds 
on  fruit  and  eggs,  but  not  grain.  The  female  lays  a  small  number  of  green 
eggs,  which  hke  the  Ostrich  she  abandons  to  the  solar  heat.  Found  in 
different  islands  of  the  Archipelago  of  India. 

Cas.  Novae- Hollandiae,  Lath.  (The  Cassowary  of  New  Holland.)  A  de- 
pressed beak;  no  helmet  on  the  head;  a  little  naked  skin  about  the  ear; 
plumage  brown  and  more  of  it;  more  barbs  to  the  feathers;  no  caruncles, 
or  spurs  on  the  wing;  nails  of  the  toes  about  equal.  Its  flesh  resembles 
beef.  Its  speed  is  greater  than  that  of  the  swiftest  greyhound.  The  young 
ones  ai'e  striped  with  brown  and  black. 


FAMILY  II. 

PRESSIROSTRES. 

This  family  comprises  genera  with  long  legs,  without  a  thumb, 
or  in  which  the  thumb  is  too  short  to  reach  the  ground.  The  bill 
is  moderate,  but  strong  enough  to  penetrate  the  earth  in  search  of 
worms;  hence  we  find  those  species  in  which  it  is  weakest  frequent- 
ing meadows  and  newly  ploughed  grounds  to  obtain  that  sort  of  food 

U 


154  AVES. 

with  more  facility.  Sucii  as  have  stronger  beaks,  also  feed  on 
herbs,  grain,  &c. 

Otis,  Lin. 
The  Bustards,  in  addition  to  the  massive  carriage  of  the  Gallinaceae,  have  a 
long  neck  and  legs,  and  moderate  beak;  its  superior  mandible  being  shghtly 
arcuated  and  arched,  which,  as  well  as  the  very  small  membranes  between 
the  base  of  the  toes,  again  recall  the  idea  of  the  Gallinaceae.  But  the  naked- 
ness of  the  lower  part  of  their  legs,  their  whole  anatomy,  and  even  the  fla- 
vour of  their  flesh,  place  them  among  the  Grallatoriae;  and  as' they  have  no 
thumb,  the  smaller  species  approximate  closely  to  the  Plovers.  Their  tarsi 
are  reticulated,  and  their  wings  short;  they  fly  but  seldom,  hardly  ever 
using  their  wings,  except  to  assist  themselves  in  running.  They  feed  in- 
differently on  grain  and  herbs,  worms  and  insects. 

0.  tarda,  L.  (The  Great  Bustard.)  Back  of  a  bright  fawn  colour, 
crossed  with  numerous  black  streaks,  the  remainder  greyish.  This  spe- 
cies builds  on  the  ground  among  the  grain. 

Chakadeius,  Lin. 

The  Plovers  have  no  thumb;  the  beak  is  moderate,  compressed,  and  enlarged 
at  the  point. 

They  may  be  divided  into  two  subgenera;  viz.  CEDidrEMUS,  Tem.  (The 
Thick-knee),  in  which  the  end  of  the  beak  is  inflated  above  as  well  as  be- 
neath, and  the  fossae  of  the  nostrils  only  extend  half  its  length :  and  Chaha- 
BKius,  Cuv.  The  beak  of  the  True  Plovers  is  only  inflated  above,  and  has 
two-thirds  of  its  length  occupied  by  the  nasal  fossae,  which  render  it  weaker. 
They  live  in  large  flocks,  and  frequent  low  grounds,  where  they  strike  the 
earth  with  their  feet,  in  order  to  set  in  motion  the  worms  on  which  they 
feed.     One  is 

Char,  pluvialis,  L>.  (The  Golden  Plover.)  Blackish;  the  edges  of  its 
feathers  dotted  with  yellow;  white  belly.  It  is  the  most  common  of  all,  and 
is  found  throughout  the  whole  globe. 

Vanellus,  Bechst. — Tringa,  Lin. 

The  Lapwings  have  the  same  kind  of  beak  as  the  Plovers,  and  are  only  dis- 
tinguished from  them  by  the  presence  of  a  thumb ;  but  it  is  so  small  that  it 
cannot  reach  the  ground. 

Hjematopus,  Lin.(l) 
The  Oyster-catchers  have  a  somewhat  longer  beak  than  the  Plovers  or  the 
Lapwings;  it  is  straight,  pointed,  compressed  into  a  wedge,  and  sufficiently 
strong  to  enable  them  to  force  open  the  bivalve  shells  of  the  animals  on 
which  they  feed.     They  also  seek  for  worms  in  the  earth.     Their  legs  are 


(1)  Blood-coloured  feet 


GRALLATORIiE.  155 

of  a  moderate  length,  their  tarsi  reticulated,  and  their  feet  divided  into 
three  toes. 
It  is  impossible  to  avoid  placing  near  the  Plovers  and  Oyster-catchers,  the 

CuRsoRiTJs,  Lac. 
Whose  beak,  more  slender,  but  equally  conical,  is  arcuated,  has  no  groove, 
and  is  moderately  cleft;  the  wings  are  shorter,  and  their  legs,  which  are 
longer,  are  terminated  by  three  toes  without  membranes  and  without  a 
thumb. 

As  far  as  we  can  judge  from  their  exterior,  it  is  here  that  we  can  most 
conveniently  place  the 

MiCKODACTYLUS,  Geoff. — DiCHOLOPHTJS,  Illig.(l) 
Whose  beak  is  longer  and  more  hooked,  the  commissure  extending  under 
the  eye,  which  gives  them  something  of  the  physiognomy  and  disposition 
of  birds  of  prey,  and  approximates  them  somewhat  to  the  Herons.  Their 
extremely  long  and  scutellated  legs  are  terminated  by  very  short  toes, 
slightly  palmated  at  base,  and  by  a  thumb  which  cannot  reach  the  ground. 
One  species  only  is  known,  and  that  is  from  South  America,  the  Micro, 
cristatus,  Geoff.  It  is  larger  than  the  Heron,  and  feeds  on  lizards  and  in- 
sects, which  it  hunts  for  on  high  grounds  and  along  the  edges  of  forests. 


FAMILY  III. 

CULTRIROSTRES. 

This  family  is  recognized  by  the  thick,  long,  and  strong  beak, 
which  is  most  generally  trenchant  and  pointed,  and  is  almost  wholly 
composed  of  the  birds  comprised  in  the  genus  Ardea  of  Linnasus. 
In  a  great  number  of  species,  the  trachea  of  the  male  forms  various 
curves. 

We  subdivide  it  into  three  tribes,  the  Cranes,  the  true  Herons, 
and  the  Storks.     The  first  tribe  forms  but  one  great  genus. 

Getts,  Lin. 

The  Cranes  have  a  straight  beak,  but  slightly  cleft;  the  membranous  fossa 
of  the  nostrils,  which  are  large  and  concave,  occupy  nearly  one  half  of  its 
length.  Their  legs  are  scutellated,  and  the  toes  moderate;  the  external 
ones  but  slightly  palmate,  and  the  thumb  hardly  reaching  to  the  g^'ound. 


(1)  MicrodactyJus,  short-finger.     Dicholophus,  crest  in  two  rows. 


156  AVES. 

A  more  or  less  considerable  portion  of  the  head  and  neck  is  destitute  of  fea- 
thers in  nearly  all  of  them. 

We  first  find  Psophia,  Lin. ,  or  the  Trumpeters,  which  have  a  shorter 
beak  tlian  the  other  species;  tlie  head  and  neck  are  merely  invested  with 
down,  and  the  cii'cumference  of  the  eye  is  naked.  They  live  in  the  woods 
and  feed  on  grain  and  fruit. 

The  species  best  known  is  from  South  America,  and  is  called  the  Truvn- 
peter,  from  its  faculty  of  producing  a  low,  deep  sound.  It  is  a  very  grateful 
bird,  and  as  susceptible  of  attachment  to  man  as  a  dog.  It  is  even  said  to 
be  so  docile  as  to  take  the  command  of  the  poultry-yard.  It  flies  badly,  but 
runs  fast,  and  builds  on  the  ground  at  the  foot  of  a  tree.    Its  flesh  is  eaten. 

Certain  Cranes  foreign  to  Europe,  with  a  shorter  beak  than  is  found  in 
those  that  belong  to  it,  should  come  next.  Such  is  the  Crowned  Crane  from 
Africa. 

The  Common  Cranes  have  a  beak  as  long  as  the  head,  or  longer:  to  which 
belongs  the  common  species  celebrated  for  its  migrations. 

Between  the  Cranes  and  Herons  we  must  place 

Jlrd.  helias,  L.  (The  Sun-Bird.)  It  is  about  the  size  of  a  Partridge,  and 
its  long  slender  neck,  broad  and  open  tail,  and  rather  short  legs  give  it  a 
very  diff"erent  appearance  from  that  of  any  other  Wader.  Its  plumage 
shaded  in  bands  and  lines  with  brown,  fawn-colour,  red,  grey  and  black,  re- 
calls to  our  minds  the  colouring  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the  nocturnal  Le- 
pidoptera.     It  is  found  on  the  banks  of  the  rivers  in  Guiana. 

The  second  tribe  is  more  carnivorous,  and  is  known  by  its  stron- 
ger beak  and  larger  toes:  wc  may  place  at  its  head, 

Cancroma,  Lin. 
The  Boat-bill,  which  would  closely  appjeach  the  Herons  in  the  strength 
of  the  beak  and  in  the  regimen  resulting  therefrom,  but  for  the  extraor- 
dinary form  of  that  organ,  which  we  shall  find,  however,  by  close  examina- 
tion, to  be  nothing  more  than  the  beak  of  a  Heron  or  Bittern,  very  much 
flattened.  In  fact,  it  is  veiy  wide  from  right  to  left,  and  is  formed  like  two 
spoons,  the  concave  sides  of  which  are  placed  in  contact.  The  mandibles 
are  strong  and  trenchant,  the  upper  one  having  a  sharp  tooth  on  each  side 
of  its  point;  the  nostrils,  situated  near  its  base,  are  continued  on  in  two  par- 
allel grooves  to  near  the  point.  There  are  four  toes  to  the  feet,  long,  and 
almost  without  membranes,  and  accordingly  we  find  that  these  birds  perch 
upon  trees  on  the  banks  of  rivers,  whence  they  precipitate  themselves  upon 
the  fish,  which  constitute  their  customary  food.  Their  gait  is  slow,  and  in 
their  attitudes  they  resemble  the  Herons.     The  species  known  is, 

Cancr.  cochlearia,  L..  (The  Boat -bill. )  Size  of  a  hen;  whitish;  grey  or 
brown  back;  red  belly;  a  white  forehead,  followed  by  a  black  calotte,  which, 
in  the  adult  male,  is  changed  into  a  long  tuft:  inhabits  the  hot  and  marshy 
parts  of  South  America. 

Then  come 


GRALLATORIiE.  157 

Ardea,  Cuv. 
Or  the  Herons,  the  cleft  of  whose  beak  extends  to  beneath  the  eyes,  a  small 
nasal  fossa  continuing  on  in  a  gi-oove  close  to  its  point.  They  are  also  dis- 
tinguished by  the  internal  edg-e  of  the  nail  of  the  middle  toe,  which  is 
trenchant  and  denticulated.  Then-  legs  are  scutellated;  tlae  thumb  and  toes 
tolerabl}'  long,  the  external  web  considerable,  and  the  eyes  placed  in  a  naked 
skin  which  extends  to  the  beak.  They  are  melancholy  birds,  which  build 
and  perch  on  the  banks  of  rivers,  where  theydesti-oy  gi-eat  numbers  offish. 

The  true  Herons  have  a  very  slender  neck,  ornamented  below  with  long 
pendent  feathers. 

The  name  of  Crabeatehs  {Crabicrs)  has  been  appUed  to  the  smalleslij 
Herons,  witli  shorter  feet. 

Tlie  feathers  on  the  neck  of  the  Bitterns  are  loose  and  separated,  which 
increases  its  apparent  size.     They  are  usually  spotted  or  striped. 

The  adult  Night-Heron,  with  the  port  of  the  Bitterns,  and  a  beak  pro- 
portionally thicker,  has  a  few  slender  feathers  on  the  occiput. 

The  third  tribe,  besides  having  a  thicker  and  smoother  beak  than 
is  found  in  the  second,  has  tolerably  strong  and  almost  equal  mem- 
branes between  the  base  of  the  toes. 

CicoNiA,  Cuv. 
The  Storks  have  a  thick  beak,  moderately  cleft;  no  fossae  or  grooves;  the 
nostrils  pierced  towards  the  back  and  near  the  base;  an  extremely  short 
tongue.  Their  legs  ai'e  reticulated,  and  the  anterior  toes  strongly  palma- 
ted  at  base,  particiUarly  the  external  ones.  The  light  and  broad  mandibles 
of  their  beak,  by  striking  against  each  other,  produce  a  clash  which  is  al- 
most the  only  sound  that  proceeds  from  these  bu-ds. 

To  this  genus  belongs  the  celebrated  White  Stork,  and  the  Black  Stork. 

We  next  distinguish  the  Bare  Necked  Storks,  and  then  the  Pouched  Storks 
so  called  from  an  appendage  under  the  tlu'oat  resembling  a  sausage.  There 
are  two  species  one  from  Senegal,  the  other  from  India, 

Myctekia,  Lin. 
The  Jabirus,  separated  from  Ardea  by  Linnoeus,  are  closely  allied  to  the 
Storks,  and  much  more  so  than  the  latter  are  to  the  true  Herons.     Their 
peculiar  character  consists  in  a  beak  slightly  curved  upwards  near  the  ex- 
tremity.    * 

Scopus,  Briss.(l) 
The  Umhres  are  only  distinguished  from  the  Storks  by  a  compressed  beak, 


(1)  Scopus,  from  SKowsf,  sentinel. 


158  AVES. 

whose  trenchant  ridge  Is  inflated  near  the  base,  and  whose  nostrils  are  con- 
tinued by  a  groove,  which  runs  parallel  with  the  ridge  to  its  end,  the  latter 
being  slightly  hooked.  Only  one  species  is  known.  Scop,  umbretta,  which 
is  the  size  of  a  Crow,  and  of  an  umber  colour.  The  occiput  of  the  male  is 
tufted.     Found  throughout  Africa. 

The  genus  Hiasts,  Lacep.,  is  only  separable  from  the  Storks  by  a  char- 
acter of  but  httle  consequence,  and  that  of  Dromas,  Payk.,  is  very  similar 
to  it,  but  the  imder  part  of  its  compressed  beak  is  perforated  by  oval  nos- 
ti'ils  and  its  edges  join  closely.    In  Ilians  they  do  not. 

Tantalus,  Lin. 

The  Wood-Pelicans  have  the  feet,  nostrils  and  beak  of  the  Stork;  but  the 
back  of  the  beak  is  rounded,  its  point  curved  downwards,  and  shghtly 
emarginated  on  each  side:  a  part  of  their  head  and  sometimes  of  the  neck, 
is  destitute  of  feathers. 

T.  loculaior,  L.  (The  Wood-Pelican  of  America. )  Is  the  size  of  a  Stork, 
but  more  slender;  white;  quills  of  the  wings  and  tail  black;  beak  and  feet, 
as  well  as  the  naked  skin  of  the  head  and  neck,  blackish.  It  inhabits  both 
Americas,  arriving  in  each  country  about  the  rainy  season,  and  frequents 
muddy  waters,  where  it  chiefly  hunts  for  eels. 

Platalea,  Lin. 

The  Spoonbills  approximate  to  the  Storks  in  the  whole  of  their  structure; 
but  their  bill,  whence  they  derive  their  name,  is  long,  flat,  broad  through- 
out, becoming  widened  and  flattened,  particularly  at  the  end,  so  as  to  form 
a  spatula-like  disk;  two  shallow  grooves,  originating  at  its  base,  extend  al- 
most to  the  end,  but  without  being  parallel  to  its  edges.  The  nostrils  are 
oval,  and  situated  at  a  short  distance  from  the  origin  of  each  gi'oove.  The 
expansion  of  their  biU  deprives  it  of  all  its  strength,  and  renders  it  fit  for 
nothing  but  turning  up  mud,  or  capturing  small  fish  or  aquatic  insects. 


FAMILY  IV. 

LONGIROSTRES. 

The  family  is  composed  of  a  multitude  of  Waders.  Their  gene- 
ral character  is  a  long,  slender,  and  feeble  bill,  the  use  of  which  is 
restricted  to  searching  in  the  mud  for  worms  and  insects;  the  differ- 
ent gradations  in  the  form  of  this  bill  serve  to  divide  them  into 
genera  and  subgenera. 

According  to  his  ovi^n  principles,  Linnaeus  should  have  united 
most  of  these  birds  in  the  great  genus 


GRALLATORliE.  159 

ScoLOPAx,  Lin. 

Which  we  divide  as  follows,  according  to  the  variation  in  the  form  of  the 
bill.    The 

Ibis,  Cuv. 

Separated  by  us  from  the  Tantalus  of  Gmelin,  because  the  bill,  though 
arcuated  like  that  of  Tantalus,  is  much  more  feeble,  and  has  no  emargina- 
tion  near  its  point;  the  nostrils  also,  perforated  near  the  back  of  its  base,  are 
severally  prolonged  in  a  groove  wliich  extends  to  the  end. 

Ibis  religiosa,  Cuv.  (The  Sacred  Ibis)  is  the  most  celebrated  species. 
It  was  reared  in  the  temples  of  ancient  Egypt,  with  a  degree  of  respect 
bordering  on  adoration;  and,  when  dead,  it  was  embalmed.  This,  accord- 
ing to  some,  arose  from  its  devouring  serpents,  which  otherwise  might  have 
infested  the  country;  others  again  are  of  opinion  that  it  took  its  origin  from 
some  relation  between  its  plumage  and  one  of  the  phases  of  the  moon; 
while  a  third  class  of  authors  attribute  it  to  the  fact  that  its  appearance  an- 
nounced the  overflow  of  the  Nile.     Found  thi'oughout  Africa. 

lb.  rubra.  (The  Red  Ibis. )  A  bh'd  found  in  all  the  hot  parts  of  America 
remarkable  for  its  bright  red  colour;  the  tips  of  the  wing-quills  are  black. 

NUMENIUS,  Cuv. 

The  Curlews  have  the  beak  arcuated  like  that  of  the  Ibis,  but  it  is  more 
slender,  and  round  throughout:  the  tip  of  the  upper  mandible  extends  be- 
yond the  end  of  the  lower  one,  and  projects  a  little  downwards  in  front  of 
it.    The  toes  are  palmated  at  base. 

ScoiopAX,  Cuv. 

The  Snipes  have  a  straight  beak,  the  nasal  furrows  extending  to  near  its 
point  which  is  a  little  inflated  externally  to  reach  beyond  the  lower  mandi- 
ble, and  on  the  middle  of  which  there  is  a  simple  groove ;  this  point  is  soft 
and  very  sensible,  and  when  dried,  after  death,  assumes  a  punctured  appear- 
ance. Their  feet  are  not  palmated.  A  peculiar  character  of  these  birds 
consists  in  their  compressed  head  and  large  eyes  placed  very  far  back,  which 
gives  them  a  singularly  stupid  air,  an  indication  which  is  confirmed  by  their 
habits. 

Our  common  Woodcock  (Scol.  minor)  belongs  to  this  genus,  as  does  also 
the  Red-breasted  Snipe,  8ic. 

Rhthch^a,  Cuv. 
Birds  of  India  and  Africa,  whose  nearly  equal  mandibles  are  slightly  arcu- 
ated at  the  end,  and  in  which  the  nasal  fossx  extend  to  the  tip  of  the  upper 
one,  which  has  no  third  groove.     Their  feet  are  not  palmated. 

LiMosA,  Bechst. 
The  Godtvits  have  a  straight  beak,  longer  than  the  Snipes,  and  sometimes 


160  AVES. 

even  slightly  arcuated  near  the  top.  The  nasal  groove  extends  close  to  the 
tip,  which  is  blunt  and  somewhat  depressed;  no  tliird  groove  or  punctation 
on  its  surface.  The  external  toes  are  palmated  at  base.  Their  form  is 
more  slender,  and  their  legs  are  longer  than  those  of  Snipes;  they  frequent 
salt  marshes  and  the  sea-shore. 

Calidkis,  Cuv. 
The  bill  of  the  Sandpipers  is  depressed  at  the  end,  and  the  nasal  fossjc 
are  very  long  as  in  the  Godwits,  but  this  bill  is  not  usually  longer  than  the 
head;  their  slightlybordered  toes  have  no  membranes  at  base,  and  their  thumb 
can  hardly  reach  the  ground;  their  moderately  long  legs  and  short  figure 
give  them  a  heavier  carriage  than  that  of  the  Godwits.  They  are  also 
much  smaller. 

Arenaria,  Bechst. — Calidris,  Vig. 
The  Sanderlings  resemble  the  Sandpipers  in  every  point  but  one,  viz.  they 
have  no  thumb,  as  is  the  case  with  the  Plovers. 

Pewdna,  Cuv. 
The  Pelidnas  are  merely  small  Sandpipers,  with  a  bill  somewhat  longer 
than  the  head.     The  edging  of  their  feet  is  insensible. 

Machetes,  Cuv. 
The  Ruffs  are  true  Sandpipers  in  their  bill  and  caiTiage;  the  membrane 
between  their  external  toes,  however,  is  nearly  as  extensive  as  in  Totanus, 
Limosa,  &c. 

One  species  only  is  known,  the  Tringa  pugnax,  L.  It  is  somewhat 
smaller  than  a  Snipe,  and  celebrated  for  the  furious  combats  that  take  place 
among  the  males.  At  this  period  the  head  is  partly  covered  with  red  pa- 
pill  se,  the  neck  is  surrounded  with  a  thick  collar  of  feathers,  so  variously 
arranged  and  coloured,  and  projecting  in  such  fantastic  positions,  that  no 
two  individuals  can  be  found  alike;  even  before  this  epoch  tliere  is  so  much 
diversity  in  their  plumage,  that  many  imaginary  species  have  been  described 
by  naturalists- 
There  are  some  small  birds  in  America  resembling  the  Sandpipers,  whose 
feet  are  semi-palmated  anteriorly  (the  Hemipalama,  Bonap.). 

EcRiNoiiHTircHCS,  Nilsou. 

Distinguished  from  them  by  its  depressed  bill,  widened  at  the  end  almost 
like  that  of  the  Spoonbill,  the  only  known  species  of  which, 

Eurinorhynchus  griseus,  NUs.,  is  one  of  the  rarest  in  existence;  for  only 
a  single  individual  has  been  found:  it  is  grey  above,  white  beneath,  and 
hai'dly  as  large  as  a  PeUdna, 

Phalaropus,  Briss. 
Small  birds,  whose  bill,  though  flatter  than  that  of  the  Sandpipers,  is 


GBALLATORIiE.  161 

similarly  proportioned,  and  has  the  same  grooves?  the  toes  also  are  bordered 
with  wide  membranes  like  those  of  Fulica. 

Strepsilas. 
The  Thm-stones  stand  rather  low;  the  bill  is  short,  and  the  toes  are  with- 
out membranes,  like  those  of  the  true  Sandpipers;  but  this  bill  is  conical, 
pointed,  without  any  depression,  compression,  or  inflation,  and  the  nasal 
fossae  do  not  extend  to  more  than  half  its  length.  The  thumb  barely 
reaches  the  ground.  Their  bill,  which  is  stronger  and  stiffer  in  proportion 
than  that  of  the  preceding  birds,  enables  them  to  overturn  stones,  beneath 
which  they  find  worms. 

TOTANUS,  Cuv. 

The  beak  of  these  birds  is  slender,  round,  pointed  and  solid;  the  nasal 
fossx  do  not  extend  beyond  the  half  of  its  length,  and  the  upper  mandible 
is  slightly  arcuated  near  the  end.  Their  form  is  light  and  their  legs  long; 
but  a  small  part  of  their  thumb  rests  on  the  ground;  their  external  web  is 
well  marked.  Each  of  the  species  is  found  throughout  almost  the  whole  of 
the  globe. 

Among  the  species  foreign  to  Europe,  we  should  particularly  notice  that 
of  North  America,  with  the  large  beak  and  semipalmated  feet,  Scolopax 
semipalmata,  L.  which  has  a  short  and  thick  beak,  plumage  brown-grey  above, 
whitish  beneath;  brownish  spots  on  the  neck  and  breast;  toes  well  bordered 
with  equal  and  considerable  membranes. 

HiMANTopus,(l)  Briss. 
The  bill  round,  slender  and  pointed,  even  more  so  than  that  of  a  Totanus, 
and  the  nasal  grooves  occupy  but  half  its  length.  The  excessive  length 
and  tenuity  of  the  legs  which  are  reticulated  and  destitute  of  a  thumb,  and 
the  weakness  of  their  bones,  which  is  so  extreme  as  to  render  walking  pain- 
ful to  them,  are  what  principally  distinguish  the  species  of  this  subgenus, 
and  give  rise  to  their  name.     Tliis  is  perhaps  the  only  place  for  the 

Recurvirostra,  Lin., 
Or  the  Avosets,  although  their  feet,  which  are  webbed  to  near  the  ends  of 
the  toes,  almost  entitle  them  to  a  situation  among  the  Palmipedes;  but  their 
high  tarsi  and  half  naked  legs,  their  long,  slender,  pointed,  smooth,  and 
elastic  bill,  together  with  the  mode  of  Ufe  resulting  from  this  conformation, 
equally  approximate  them  to  the  Snipes.  What  particularly  characterises, 
and  even  distinguishes  them  from  all  other  birds,  is  the  strong  upward  curve 
of  their  beak.  Their  legs  are  reticulated,  and  their  thumb  much  too  short 
to  reach  the  ground. 


(I)  Himantopus,  feet  like  a  string,  (alluding  to  their  weakness)  is  the 
name  given  to  this  bird  in  Pliny. 
V 


163  AVES. 


FAMILY  V. 

MACRODACTYLI. 

This  family  is  furnished  with  very  long  toes,  fitted  for  walking  on 
the  grass  of  marshes,  and  even  for  swimming,  in  those  numerous 
species,  especially,  in  which  they  are  bordered  with  a  membrane. 
There  are  no  membranes,  however,  between  the  bases  of  their  toes, 
not  even  between  the  external  ones.  The  beak,  more  or  less  com- 
pressed on  the  sides,  is  lengthened  or  shortened  according  to  the 
genus,  never,  however,  becoming  as  slender  or  as  weak  as  that  of 
the  preceding  family.  The  body  of  these  birds  is  also  singularly 
compressed,  a  circumstance  which  is  owing  to  the  narrowness  of  the 
sternum;  their  wings  are  moderate  or  short,  and  their  flight  feeble 
They  all  have  a  long  thumb. 

They  have  been  divided  into  two  tribes  according  to  the  armature 
or  non-armature  of  their  wings;  but  this  character  is  hable  to  excep- 
tions. 

Jacanas,  Briss. — Pakka,  Lin. 
The  Jacanas  are  greatly  distinguished  from  the  other  Grallatorise  by  having^ 
foiir  very  long  toes,  separated  down  to  their  root,  the  nails  of  which,  that 
of  the  thumb  in  particular,  are  also  extremely  long  and  pointed,  from  which 
peculiarity,  they  have  received  their  vulgar  name  of  Surgeons.  The  beak 
is  similar  to  that  of  the  Lapwings  in  its  moderate  length,  and  in  the  slight 
inflation  of  its  end.  Their  wing  is  armed  with  a  spur.  They  are  noisy  and 
quarrelsome  birds,  which  inhabit  marshes  of  hot  climates,  where  they  walk 
with  great  facility  by  means  of  their  long  toes. 

Palamedea,  Lin. 
The  Kamichi  resemble  the  Jacanas,  but  on  a  very  large  scale,  in  the  two 
strong  spurs  of  each  of  their  wings,  in  their  long  toes  and  strong  nails,  that 
of  the  thumb  in  particular,  which  is  long  and  straight  as  in  the  Larks;  but 
their  beak,  whose  aperture  is  small,  is  but  slightly  conipressed,  and  is  not 
inflated;  the  upper  mandible,  also,  is  somewhat  arcuated.  Their  legs  are 
reticulated.     A  distinct  genus, 

Chauna,  Illig., 
Has  been  made  of  the  Paira  chavaria,  L.;  Cha'ta  of  Paraguay,  which  has  no 
horn  on  the  vertex,  and  whose  occiput  is  ornamented  with  a  circle  of  erec- 
tile feathers.     The  head  and  upper  pai-t  of  the  neck  are  only  covered  with 
down,  and  it  has  a  black  collar.     It  chiefly  feeds  on  aquatic  plants;  and  the 


GRALLATORI^.  163 

Indians  of  Carthagena  always  kept  some  of  tliem  among'  their  Geese  and 
Chickens,  as  it  is  sufficiently  courag-eous,  according  to  them,  to  repulse  even 
the  Vulture.  A  singular  circumstance  attending  this  bird  is,  that  air  is 
every  where  Interposed  between  the  skin  and  muscles,  even  on  the  legs,  in 
such  a  quantity  as  causes  it  to  crackle  under  the  finger. 

Of  the  tribe  whose  wings  have  no  armature,  Linriajus  comprises 
in  his  genus  Fulica  such  as  have  their  beak  prolonged  into  a  sort  of 
shield,  which  partly  covers  the  forehead;  and  in  his  genus  Rallus^ 
those  in  which  this  peculiarity  does  not  exist. 

Rallus,  Lin. 
The  Bails,  which,  in  other  respects,  have  a  strong,  mutual  resemblance,  pre- 
sent bills  of  very  different  proportions. 

Hal.  crex,  L.  Fawn  coloured  brown,  spotted  with  black  above;  greyish 
beneath;  flanks  streaked  with  black;  red  wings.  It  lives  and  bu'dds  in  the 
fields,  running  through  the  grass  with  great  celerity.  Its  name,  Crex,  ex- 
presses the  sound  of  its  note.  It  has  been  called  the  Quail-King,  because 
it  arrives  and  departs  with  those  birds,  and  leads  a  solitary  life  on  the  same 
grounds,  fi-om  which  arose  the  conjecture  that  it  was  their  leader.  It  feeds 
on  grain,  as  well  as  on  worms  and  insects. 

Fulica,  Lin. 
The  Coots  may  be  divided  as  follows,  from  the  form  of  the  beak  and  the  ap- 
pliances of  the  feet. 

GAtLiNuiA,  Briss.  and  Lath. 
Or  the  Water-Hens.     The  beak  very  similar  to  that  of  the  Ground  Rail, 
from  which  these  birds  are  distinguished  by  the  shield  on  the  forehead  and 
by  very  long  toes  fui-nished  with  a  very  narrow  border. 

PoKPHYRio,  Briss. 

The  beak  higher  in  proportion  to  its  length;  very  long  toes,  without  any 
very  sensible  border;  the  frontal  shield  large,  rounded  in  some,  and  square 
above  in  others.  These  birds  stand  on  one  foot,  using  the  other  to  convey 
their  food  to  the  beak.  Their  colours  are  usually  fine  shades  of  blue,  \-iolet, 
and  aqua-marina.     Such  is 

Fulica  porphyrio,  L.;  a  beautiful  African  bird,  now  naturalized  in  several 
islands  and  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean.  Its  beauty  would  render  it  an  or- 
nament to  our  pleasure  grounds. 

FuiicA,  Briss. 
The  True  Coots,  in  addition  to  a  short  beak  and  a  large  fi-ontal  shield, 
have  their  toes  much  widened  by  a  festooned  border  that  renders  them  excel- 
lent swimmers,  in  consequence  of  which  their  lives  are  passed  in  ponds  and 


164  AVES. 

marshes.  Their  polished  plumage  is  not  less  adapted  to  this  kind  of  life 
than  their  conformation,  and  these  birds  establish  an  evident  link  between 
the  ordei'  of  the  Grallatorise  and  that  of  the  Palmipedes.  There  is  but  one 
in  Europe, 

F.  atra,  Gm.  (The  Coot.)  The  shield  of  a  deep  slate  colour;  edge  of 
the  wings  whitish;  in  the  nuptial  season  the  shield  becomes  red:  found 
wherever  there  is  a  pond. 

We  will  terminate  this  sketch  of  the  Grallatoriae  with  three  genera, 
which  it  is  difficult  to  associate  with  any  other,  and  which  may  be 
considered  as  forming  separately  so  many  small  families. 

Chionis,  Foster. — Vaginalis,  Lath. 
Or  the  Sheath-Bills.     Their  legs  are  short,  almost  like  those  of  the  Gallina- 
cese;  their  tarsi  scutellated,  their  bill  stout  and  conical,  having  a  hard  sub- 
stance enveloping  its  base,  which,  it  appears,  the  bird  has  the  power  of 
i-aising  and  depressing. 

Only  one  species  is  known,  and  that  is  from  New  Holland,  Vag.  Chionis, 
Lath.  It  is  the  size  of  a  Partridge,  with  entirely  white  plumage.  It  haunts 
the  sea-coast,  where  it  feeds  on  the  dead  animals  tlirown  up  by  the  waves. 

Glareola. 

The  beak  of  the  Pratincoles  is  short,  conical,  arcuated  throughout,  has  a 
large  opening,  and  resembles  that  of  the  Gallinacese.  Their  excessively 
long  and  pointed  wings  remind  us  of  the  Swallows,  or  of  the  Palmipedes  of 
the  high  seas;  their  legs  are  of  a  moderate  length,  their  tarsi  scutellated,  and 
their  external  toes  somewhat  palraated;  their  thumb  touches  the  ground. 
Aquatic  worms  and  insects  constitute  their  food. 
Our  last  genus  will  be  that  of 

Phcenioopterus,  Lin. 
Or  the  Flamingos,  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  and  insulated  of  all  birds. 
The  legs  are  excessively  long;  the  three  anterior  toes  are  palmated  to  their 
ends,  and  that  of  the  hind  one  is  extremely  short;  the  neck,  quite  as  long 
and  slender  as  the  legs,  and  the  smali  head  furnished  with  a  beak  whose 
lower  mandible  is  an  oval  longitudinally  bent  into  a  semi-cylindrical  canal, 
while  the  upper  one,  oblong  and  flat,  is  bent  crosswise  in  its  middle,  so  as 
to  join  the  other  exactly.  The  membranous  fossae  of  the  nostrils  occupy 
nearly  all  the  side  of  the  part  which  is  behind  the  ti-ansverse  fold,  and  the 
nostrils  themselves  are  longitudinal  slits  in  the  base  of  the  fossae.  The  edges 
of  the  two  mandibles  are  furnished  with  small,  and  very  delicate  transverse 
laminje,  which,  with  the  fleshy  thickness  of  the  tongue,  creates  some  affinity 
between  these  birds  and  the  Ducks.  AVere  it  not  for  the  lengtlii  of  theirtarsi, 
and  the  nudity  of  their  legs,  we  might  even  place  them  among  the  Palmipe- 
des.    They  feed  on  shell  fish,  insects,  and  the  spawn  of  fishes,  \yluch  they 


GRALLATORIiE.  165 

capture  by  means  of  their  long  neck,  turning  the  head  on  one  side  to  give 
more  effect  to  the  hook  of  the  upper  mandible.  They  construct  their  nest 
of  eartli  in  marshes,  placing  themselves  astride  of  it  to  hatcli  their  eggs,  a 
position  to  which  they  are  forced  to  resort  by  the  length  of  their  legs.  The 
species  known, 

Ph.  ruber  (The  Red  Flamingo),  is  from  three  to  four  feet  in  height;  ash 
coloured,  with  brown  sti-eaks,  during  the  first  year;  in  the  second  there  is  a 
rosy  hue  on  the  wings,  and  in  the  tliird  it  acquires  a  permanent  purple-red 
on  the  back,  and  rose-coloured  wings.  The  quills  of  the  wmg  are  black, - 
the  beak  yellow,  with  a  black  tip,  and  the  feet  brown. 

This  species  is  found  m  all  parts  of  the  eastern  continent  below  40". 

We  have  also  an  American  species,  tlie  Fh.  ruber  of  Temminck. 


ORDER  VI. 
PALMIPEDES. 

These  birds  are  characterized  by  their  feet,  formed  for  natation, 
that  is  to  say,  placed  far  back  on  the  body,  attached  to  short  and 
compressed  tarsi,  and  with  palmated  toes.  Their  dense  and  polished 
plumage  saturated  with  oil,  and  the  thickly  set  down  which  is  next 
to  their  skin,  protect  them  from  the  water  in  which  they  live.  They 
are  the  only  birds  whose  bill  surpasses — which  it  sometimes  does  to 
a  considerable  extent — the  length  of  their  feet,  and  tliis  is  so,  to  ena- 
ble them  to  search  for  their  food  in  the  depths  below,  while  they 
swim  on  the  surface.  Their  sternum  is  very  long,  affording  a  com- 
plete guard  to  the  greater  part  of  their  viscera,  having,  on  each  side, 
but  one  emarginalion  or  oval  foramen,  filled  up  with  membrane. 

This  order  admits  of  a  tolerably  precise  division  into  four  families. 

FAMILY  I. 

BRACHYPTER^. 

A  part  of  this  family  has  some  external  affinities  with  that  of  the 
Gallinulae.  Their  legs,  placed  further  back  than  in  any  other  birds, 
renders  walking  painful  to  them,  and  obliges  them,  when  on  land,  to 
stand  vertically.  In  addition  to  this,  as  most  of  them  have  but  feeble 
powers  of  flight,  and  as  some  of  them  are  wholly  deprived  of  that 


166  AVES. 

faculty,  we  may  consider  them  as  exclusively  attached  to  the  surface 
of  the  water:  their  plumage  is  extremely  dense,  and  its  surface  fre- 
quently polished,  presenting  a  silvery  lustre.  They  swim  under  wa- 
ter, using  their  wings  with  almost  as  much  effect  as  though  they 
were  fins. 

CoLYMBUs,  Lin. 

The  only  particular  character  of  the  Divers  is  a  smooth,  straig-ht,  compressed 
and  pointed  bUl,  and  linear  nostrUs;  but  the  differences  in  the  feet  have 
caused  them  to  be  subdivided. 

PoDicEPs,  Lath. 

The  toes  of  the  Grebes,  instead  of  being  palmated,  arejwidened  hke  those 
of  the  Coots,  the  anterior  ones  only  being  united  at  base  by  membranes. 
The  middle  nail  is  flattened,  and  the  tarsus  strong-ly  compressed.  The 
semi-metallic  lustre  of  their  plumage  has  caused  it  to  be  occasionally  em- 
ployed as  fur.  Their  tibia,  as  well  as  that  of  the  succeeding  subgenera, 
is  prolonged  above  into  a  point  which  gives  a  more  efficient  insertion  to 
the  extensors  of  the  leg. 

These  birds  hve  on  lakes,  &c.,  and  build  among  the  rushes.  In  certain 
circumstances,  it  appears  that  they  caiTy  their  young  ones  under  their  wings. 
Their  size  and  plumage  are  so  much  changed  by  age,  as  to  have  caused  an 
improper  multiphcation  of  species.  M.  Meyer  reduces  those  of  Europe 
to  four. 

Col.  cristatus,  Gm.  (The  Crested  Grebe)  is  the  size  of  a  duck;  blackish- 
brown  above,  silver-white  beneath;  a  white  band  on  the  wing;  it  acquires 
with  age  a  double  black  tuft,  and  the  adults  have,  in  addition,  a  broad  red 
colerette  on  the  upper  part  of  the  neck  edged  with  black. 

Mehgtts,  Briss. — Eudttes,  Illig.(l) 

The  true  Divers  have  the  feet  of  ordinary  Palmipedes,  along  with  all  the 
forms  of  the  Grebes,  that  is,  the  anterior  toes  are  united  to  their  ends  by 
membranes,  and  are  terminated  by  pointed  nails.  They  are  northern  birds, 
which  rarely  breed  in  France,  where  they  arrive  in  winter,  at  which  season 
is  occasionally  seen  on  the  coast 

Col.  glacialis,  L..  (The  Great  Northern  Diver.)  The  adult  is  two  feet 
six  inches  in  length,  its  head  and  neck  black,  changing  to  a  green  with  a 
whitish  collar;  back,  a  blackish  brown  dotted  with  whitish;  white  beneath; 
the  lower  mandible,  which  has  a  slight  curve  upwards,  is  marked  by  a 
g^roove  beneath. 

Uria,  Briss. 
The  Guillemots  have  a  bill,  which,  though  of  the  general  form  of  the  pre- 


(1)  JHergus  (diver),  the  Latin  name  of  some  sea-bird  difficult  to  determine. 
Eudyfes,  a  Greek  word  composed  by  Illiger,  has  the  same  meaning. 


PALMIPEDES.  167 

ceding,  is  covered  with  feathers  down  to  the  nostrils;  there  is  also  an  emar- 
gination  at  the  point  which  is  somewhat  arcuated.  Their  chief  character, 
however,  consists  in  the  absence  of  the  thumb.  Their  wings,  much  shorter 
than  those  of  the  Divers,  scarcely  enable  them  to  flutter.  They  feed  on  fish, 
crabs,  &c.  and  are  found  among  rocky  precipices  when  they  breed. 

Alca,  Lin. 
The  Auks  are  known  by  the  very  much  compressed,  vertically  raised  bill 
which  has  a  trenchant  back,  and  is  usually  gi-ooved  transversely;  and  by  the 
feet  which  are  completely  palmated,  and  have  no  thumb  like  those  of  the 
Guillemot.  All  these  birds  inhabit  the  northern  seas.  We  may  divide  the 
genus  into  two  subgenera. 

Fkatercuia,  Briss. 

Or  the  Puffins,  whose  bill,  shorter  than  the  head,  is  as  high  and  higher  at 
base  than  it  is  long,  which  gives  it  a  very  extraordinary  form;  a  folded  skin 
usually  covers  its  base.  The  nostrils  placed  near  the  edge  are  mere  shts. 
Their  small  wing^  can  just  sustain  them  for  a  moment;  they  live  upon  the 
ocean  and  breed  on  the  rocks. 

The  most  common  species,  Alca  ardica,  L.,  is  the  size  of  a  Pigeon,  and 
has  a  black  calotte  and  mantle;  white  beneath.  It  sometimes  breeds  among 
the  cliffs  on  the  Enghsh  coast,  and  is  very  common  on  those  of  France  dur- 
ing the  winter. 

AlCA,  Cuv.(l) 
The  true  Auks  have  a  more  elongated  bill,  resembling  in  form  the  blade 
of  a  knife;  it  is  covered  with  feathers  as  far  as  the  nostrils.     Their  wings 
are  decidedly  too  small  to  support  them,  and  therefore  they  never  at- 
tempt to  fly. 

Aptenodytes,  Forst'. 

The  Penguins  are  even  less  capable  of  flying  than  the  Auks.  Their  little 
wings  are  covered  with  mere  vestiges  of  feathers,  which  at  the  first  glance 
resemble  scales;  their  feet,  placed  farther  behind  than  those  of  any  other 
bird,  only  support  them  by  bearing  on  the  tarsus,  which  is  widened  like  the 
sole  of  the  foot  of  a  quadruped,  and  in  which  are  found  three  bones  soldered 
together  at  their  extremities.  They  have  a  small  thumb  directed  inwards, 
and  their  three  anterior  toes  are  united  by  an  entire  membrane.  They  are 
only  found  in  the  Antarctic  Seas,  never  going  on  shore  except  to  breed. 
They  can  only  reach  their  nests  by  drawing  themselves  along  on  their 
bellies.  The  difference  in  their  bill  authorizes  their  division  into  several 
subgenera. 


(1)  Alca,  Aik.Auk,  the  name  of  these  birds  in  the  Feroe  Islands,  and  in 
the  north  of  Scotland.  That  of  Penguin,  first  given  to  the  Aptenodytes  of 
the  south  by  the  Dutch,  indicates  the  oily  nature  of  then:  fat. 


168  AVES. 

Apt.  patagoniea,  Gm.  (The  Great  Penguin. )  Is  the  size  of  a  Goose, 
slate-coloured  above,  white  beneath;  a  black  mask  surrounded  with  a  lemon- 
coloured  cravatte.  Found  in  large  troops  near  the  straits  of  Magellan,  and 
as  £aur  as  New  Guinea.     The  flesh,  though  black,  is  eatable. 

CiTABHEtACTES,  BrfsS. 

The  Crorfus{\)  have  the  bill  stout,  but  little  compressed,  pointed, 
rounded  on  the  back,  and  its  point  somewhat  arcuated;  the  groove  which 
arises  from  the  nostril  terminates  obliquely  on  the  inferior  third  of  its  edge. 


FAMILY  II. 

LONGIPENNES. 

This  family  includes  those  birds  of  the  high  seas,  which  from  their 
immense  strength  of  wing  are  to  be  met  with  in  every  latitude. 
They  are  known  by  the  freedom  or  nullity  of  the  thumb,  by  their 
very  long  wings,  and  by  their  bill  which  is  not  notched  but  hooked 
at  the  point  in  the  first  genera,  and  simply  pointed  in  the  others. 

Peocellahia,  Lin. 

The  Peirek  have  a  bill  hooked  at  the  end,  the  extremity  of  which  seems  to 
consist  of  a  distinct  piece  articulated  with  the  remainder.  Their  nostrils  are 
united  and  form  a  tube  laid  on  the  back  of  the  upper  mandible;  there  is  a 
nail  planted  in  the  heel,  but  no  thiimb.  Of  aU  the  Palmipedes,  these  re- 
main most  constantly  at  a  distance  from  land,  and  when  a  tempest  super- 
venes, they  are  forced  to  seek  shelter  on  reefs  and  ships,  from  which 
circumstance  they  derive  their  name  of  Storm  Birds:  that  of  Petrel — Little 
Peter — has  been  given  to  them  on  account  of  their  habit  of  walking  on  the 
water,  which  they  effect  by  the  aid  of  their  wings.  They  make  their  nests 
in  holes  of  rocks,  and  eject  on  those  who  attack  them  an  oUy  fluid  with 
which  their  stomach  seems  to  be  always  filled.  The  greater  number  inhabit 
the  Antarctic  Seas. 

Proc.  ^igantea,  Gm.  (The  Giant  Petrel)  is  only  found  in  the  South 
Seas.  It  is  the  largest  of  all  the  species,  surpassing  the  Goose  in  size.  Its 
plumage  is  blackish,  though  there  are  some  varieties  in  which  it  is  more  or 
less  white. 

Certain  small  species,  with  a  somewhat  shorter  bill  and  rather  longer  legs 


(1)  Corfu,  a  corruption  of  goir  fugel,  the  name  of  the  Great  Auk  in  the 
Feroe  Islands.  Catarrhactes  is  the  Greek  name  of  a  very  different  bird, 
which  could  fly  well,  and  precipitated  itself  from  a  height  on  its  prey.  It 
was  most  probably  a  species  of  Gull. 


PALMIPEDES.  169 

and  black  plumage,  the  THAiassiDRoaiA,  Vigors,  are  particularly  designated 
by  sailors  under  the  name  of  "  Mother  Carey's  Chickens." 

The  most  common,  Proc.  peJagica,  Briss.  is  scarcely  larger  than  a  Lark; 
stands  high;  all  brown  except  the  rump  which  is  white,  and  a  white  line  on 
the  end  of  the  great  wing-coverts.  Wlien  it  seeks  shelter  on  a  vessel,  it 
may  be  considered  as  the  forerunner  of  a  hurricane. 

We  separate,  with  Brisson,  under  the  name  of 

Prrriyrs, 

Or  Puffins,  those  in  which  the  end  of  the  lower  mandible  is  curved  down- 
wards along  with  that  of  the  upper  one,  and  in  which  the  nostrils,  although 
tubular,  do  not  open  by  one  common  orifice,  but  by  two  distinct  holes. 
Their  bill  also  is  proportionally  longer. 

Proc.  puffinus,  Gm.  Cinereous  above;  whitish  beneath;  wings  and  tjul 
blackish:  the  young  is  darker.  Its  size  is  that  of  a  Crow.  Yerj-  common  in 
almost  every  sea. 

DiOMEDEA,  Lin.(l) 
The  JlUxxtross  is  the  most  massive  of  aU  aquatic  birds .  The  larg«,  strong 
and  trenchant  bill  is  marked  with  sutures,  and  is  terminated  by  a  stout  hook, 
which  seems  to  be  articulated  with  it.  The  nostrils  resemble  short  rolls 
laid  on  the  sides  of  the  beak;  there  is  no  thumb,  not  even  the  small  nail  that 
is  observed  in  the  Petrels.  They  inhabit  the  South  seas,  and  feed  on  Mol- 
lusca,  &c. 

D.  exulans,  L.,  is  the  species  best  known  to  navigators,  who,  on  account 
of  its  size,  white  plumage,  and  black  wings,  and  because  it  is  particularly 
common  beyond  the  tropic  of  Capricorn,  have  called  it  The  Cape  Sheep. 

The  English  also  style  it  the  Man  of  War  Bird,  &c.  It  is  the  great  ene- 
my of  the  Flying-fish.  It  constructs  a  high  nest  of  earth,  and  lays  a  num- 
ber of  eggs,  which  are  considered  good  food. 

Lasus,  Lin. 

The  CruUs  have  a  compressed,  elongated,  pointedbill,  the  superior  mandible 
arcuated  near  the  end,  and  the  inferior  forming  a  salient  angle  beneath. 
The  nostrils,  placed  near  its  middle,  are  long,  narrow,  and  bored  quite 
through;  their  tail  is  fiill,  their  legs  tolerably  long,  and  their  tlmmb  short. 
They  are  cowardly  and  voracious  birds,  which  swarm  along  the  sea  coasts, 
feeding  on  fish,  the  flesh  of  dead  bodies,  &c.  They  breed  in  the  sand,  or 
in  clefls  of  rock,  laying  but  few  eggs.  When  tliey  fly  into  the  country, 
bad  weather  may  be  expected. 


(1)  Diomedea,  the  ancient  name  of  certain  birds  of  the  Island  of  Diomedes, 
near  Tarentum,  which  were  said  to  receive  the  Greeks  favourably,  and  to 
attack  the  barbarians.  As  to  the  woi-d  Jlbatross,  I  find  that  the  early  Por- 
tuguese navigators  called  the  Boobies  and  other  oceanic  birds  Aleatrot,  or 
£katrais. 

w 


170  AYES. 

Lar.  cyanorhynchus,  Meyer.  (The  Common  Gull.)  When  old,  of  a 
beautiful  white,  with  a  light  ash  coloured  mantlej  the  primary  quills  of  the 
wing  partly  black,  with  white  spots  at  their  tips,  the  feet  and  bill  lead  co- 
loured.   Feeds  on  shell  fish. 

Sterna,  Lin. 
The  Terns,  ov  Sea-Swallows,  derive  this  latter  appellation  from  their  excess- 
ively long  and  pointed  wings  and  from  their  forked  tail,  which  render  their 
flight  and  carriage  analogous  to  those  of  Swallows.  Their  bill  is  pointed, 
compressed,  and  straight,  without  curve  or  projection;  the  nostrils,  placed 
near  its  base,  are  oblong  and  pierced  quite  through;  the  membranes  which 
unite  their  toes  ai-e  deeply  emarginate,  consequently  they  swim  but  seldom. 
They  fly  over  the  waves  in  every  du-ection  and  with  great  rapidity,  uttering 
loud  cries,  and  skilfully  raising  from  the  surface  of  the  water  the  MoUusca 
and  smaU  Fish  on  which  they  feed.  They  also  penetrate  to  the  lakes  and 
rivers  of  the  interior.  There  are  several  species. 
We  may  also  distinguish  from  the  other  Terns, 

The  Noddies, 

Whose  tail  is  not  forked,  and  is  nearly  as  long  as  the  wings.  There  is  a 
slight  projection  under  their  bill,  the  first  indication  of  that  in  the  Mauves. 
But  one  species  is  known, 

St.  stolida,  L.  (The  Noddy),  which  is  a  blackish  brown,  top  of  the  head 
whitish.  Celebrated  for  the  blundering  manner  in  which  it  throws  itself  on 
vessels. 

Rhtnchops,  Lin. 
The  Skimmers  resemble  the  Terns  in  their  small  feet,  long  wings  and  forked 
tail,  but  are  distinguished  from  all  birds  by  their  extraordinary  bill,  the  up- 
per mandible  of  which  is  shorter  than  the  other,  both  being  flattened  so  as 
to  form  simple  blades,  which  meet  without  clasping.  Their  only  mode  of 
feeding  is  by  skimming  their  aliment  from  the  surface  of  the  water  with  the 
lower  mandible,  which  they  effect  while  on  the  wing.     One  species, 

RJiym.  nigra,  L.  (The  Black  Skimmer),  is  white,  with  a  black  mantle 
and  calotte;  a  white  band  on  the  wing;  outside  of  the  external  quills  of  the 
tail  white;  biU  and  feet  red;  hardly  as  large  as  a  Pigeon.  From  the  vici- 
nity of  the  Antilles. 


FAMILY  III. 

TOTIPALMATiE. 

The  birds  of  this  fanrnly  are  remarkable  for  having  the  thumb 
united  with  the  toes  by  one  single  membrane,  a  mode  of  organization 


PALMIPEDES.  171 

that  renders  their  feet  complete  oars,  notwithstanding  which,  they 
perch  upon  trees,  being  almost  the  only  Palmipedes  who  do  so. 
They  all  fly  well  and  have  short  feet.  Linnaeus  separated  them  into 
three  genera,  the  first  of  which  it  was  necessary  to  subdivide, 

Pelecanus,  Lin. 
The  Pelicans  comprise  all  those  in  which  the  base  of  the  bill  is  found  to  have 
some  part  destitute  of  feathei-s.  Their  nostrUs  are  fissures,  the  apertures 
of  which  are  scarcely  perceptible.  The  skin  of  their  throat  is  more  or  less 
extensible,  and  their  tongue  very  small.  Their  thin  gizzard,  with  their 
other  stomachs,  forms  a  large  sac. 

The  bill  of  the  True  Pelicans  is  very  remarkable  for  its  extreme  length, 
its  straight,  very  broad  and  horizontally  flattened  form,  for  the  hook  which 
terminates  it,  and  for  the  lower  mandible  whose  flexible  branches  sustain  a 
naked  membrane,  susceptible  of  being  dilated  into  a  large  sac. 

P.  onocrotalus,  L.  (The  Common  Pelican.)  As  large  as  a  Swan,  en- 
tirely white,  slightly  tinged  with  flesh  colour;  the  hook  of  the  bill  of  a 
cherry-red;  is  more  or  less  disseminated  throughout  the  eastern  continent, 
breeds  in  marshes,  and  feeds  exclusively  on  living  Fish.  It  is  said  to  trans- 
port both  food  and  water  in  its  sac. 

Phaiacrocohax,  Briss. 

The  Cormorants[l)  have  an  elongated  and  compressed  beak,  the  end  of 
the  upper  mandible  hooked,  and  that  of  the  lower  one  truncated;  the  tongue 
is  very  small,  and  the  skin  of  the  throat  less  dilatable;  the  nostrils  resemble 
a  small  unpierced  line,  and  the  nail  of  the  middle  toe  is  notched  Hke  a  saw. 

Pel.  carbOfL,.  (The  Cormorant.)  Black-brown,  undulated  with  jet  black 
on  the  back,  and  mixed  with  white  near  the  end  of  the  bill  and  front  of  the 
neck;  circumference  of  the  tliroat  and  the  cheeks,  white,  in  the  male,  which 
also  has  a  tuft  on  the  occiput.  Its  size  is  that  of  the  Goose.  It  breeds  in 
holes  among  the  rocks  or  upon  trees,  and  lays  three  or  foui-  eggs. 

Tachtpetes,  VieiU. 

The  Frigate  Birds  differ  from  the  Cormorants  in  their  forked  tail  and  short 
feet,  the  membranes  of  which  are  deeply  emarginated;  in  an  excessive  length 
of  wing,  and  in  a  bill  both  of  whose  mandibles  are  curved  at  the  point.  So 
powerful  are  their  wings,  that  they  fly  to  an  hnmense  distance  from  all  land, 
principally  between  the  tropics,  darting  upon  the  Flying  Fish  and  striking 
the  Boobies  to  make  them  disgorge  their  prey. 

One  species  only  is  well  known,  the  Pelecanus  aquilus,  L.,  whose  plumage 


(1)  Cormorant  from  Cormoran,  a  corruption  of  Corbeau  marin,  on  account 
of  its  black  colour.  It  is  in  fact  the  Aquatic  Crow  of  Aristotle.  Phalacro- 
carax  {Bald  Crow)  is  the  Greek  name  of  this  bird,  indicated  by  Pliny,  but 
is  not  employed  by  Aristotle. 


172  AVES. 

is  black,  the  under  part  of  the  throat  and  neck  more  or  less  varied  with  white, 
and  the  bill  red.  Its  wings,  when  expanded,  are  said  to  measure  from  ten 
to  twelve  feet. 

SuLA,  Briss. 

The  Boobies[l)  have  a  straight,  slightly  compressed,  pointed  bill,  the 
point  slightly  arcuated;  its  edges  are  serrated,  the  teeth  inclining  backwards; 
the  nostrils  are  prolonged  by  a  line  which  extends  to  near  the  point.  They 
are  called  Boobies  on  account  of  the  excessive  stupidity  with  which  they 
permit  themselves  to  be  attacked  by  men  and  birds,  the  Frigate  Birds  par- 
ticularly, which,  as  already  stated,  force  them  to  yield  up  the  fish  they  have 
captured.     The  most  common  is 

Pelecanus  bassanus,  L.  (The  Common  Booby.)  White;  the  primary 
quills  of  the  wings  and  the  feet  black;  the  beak  greenish;  nearly  as  large 
as  the  Goose.  It  is  called  the  Bassan  Booby  from  a  small  island  in  the  gulf 
of  Edinbiu-gh,  where  it  is  very  abundant  although  it  lays  but  a  single  e^g. 

Plotus,  Lin. (2) 
The  Darters  have  the  body  and  feet  very  similar  to  those  of  a  Cormorant;  a 
iong  neck  and  small  head,  with  a  straight,   slender,  pointed  beak,  whose 
edges  are  denticulated;  the  eyes  and  nudity  of  the  face,  as  in  the  Pelicans; 
their  habits  also  are  similar,  perching  on  ti'ees. 

Several  species  or  varieties  are  known  from  the  hot  climates  of  both  con- 
tinents.    They  are  not  larger  than  the  Duck,  but  they  have  a  longer  neck. 

Photon,  Lin. 
The  Trojnc  Birds  are  known  by  two  very  long  and  narrow  feathers  that  flow 
from  their  tail,  which  at  a  distance  resemble  so  many  straws.  There  is  no 
naked  part  about  the  head.  Their  bUl  is  straight,  pointed,  denticulated,  and 
tolerably  strong;  their  feet  short  and  their  wings  long:  their  powers  of  flight 
are  consequently  great,  and  as  they  rarely  quit  the  torrid  zone,  their  pre- 
sence  announces  to  the  mariner  his  vicinity  to  the  tropics.  On  land,  where 
they  seldom  resort  except  to  breed,  they  perch  on  trees. 


FAMILY  IV. 

LAMELLIROSTRES. 

In  this  family  we  find  a  thick  bill,  invested  with  a  soft  skin  rather 
than  with  true  horn;  its  edges  are  furnished  with  laminae  or  little 
teeth;  the  tongue  is  broad  and  fleshy,  the  edges  notched.     The  wings 


(1)  Sula  is  the  name  of  the  common  species  at  the  Feroe  Islands. 

(2)  Plotus,  or  plautus,  signifies,  in  Latin,  flat-foot. 


PALMIPEDES.  173 

are  of  a  moderate  length.     They  pass  more  of  their  time  on  fresh 
waters  than  at  sea.     The  great  genus 

Anas,  Lin. 
Comprises  those  Palmipedes,  the  edges  of  whose  large  and  broad  bill  are 
furnished  with  a  range  of  thin  salient  laminae,  placed  transversely,  which 
appear  destined  to  allow  the  water  to  pass  off  when  the  bird  has  seized  its 
prey.  They  are  divided  into  three  subgenera,  whose  limits,  however,  are 
not  very  precise. 

Ctgnds,  Meyer. 

The  bill  of  the  Swans  is  of  an  equal  breadth  throughout,  higher  at  base 
than  it  is  wide;  the  nostrils  about  the  middle  of  its  length;  the  neck  is  very 
long.  They  are  the  largest  birds  of  the  genus,  and  feed  chiefly  on  the  seeds 
and  roots  of  aquatic  plants.  Their  intestines  and  cxca  in  particular  are  con- 
sequently very  long.  There  is  no  inflation  of  the  trachea.  Two  species 
are  found  in  Europe. 

Jlnas  olor,  Gm.  (The  Red-billed  or  Domestic  Swan.)  Beak  red,  edged 
with  black,  surmounted  at  base  by  a  rounded  protuberance;  the  plumage 
snow-white.  When  young,  the  beak  is  lead-coloured  and  the  plumage  grey. 
This  is  the  species,  when  domesticated,  that  forms  the  ornament  of  our  ponds 
and  grounds.  Its  elegance  of  form,  graceful  movements  and  snow-white 
plumage  have  rendered  it  the  emblem  of  innocence  and  beauty.  It  feeds 
both  on  fish  and  vegetables,  flies  extremely  high  and  with  great  swiftness, 
using  its  wings,  which  are  a  powerful  weapon,  in  striking  its  enemies  when 
attacked.  It  breeds  among  the  reeds  in  ponds,  and  lays  six  or  eight  eggs 
of  a  greenish-grey. 

Jin.  a/gnus,  Gm.  (The  Black-billed  Swan.)  Bill  black  with  a  yellow 
base;  the  body  white  tinged  with  a  yellowish  grey — when  young,  all  grey. 

An.  plutcmia,  Sh.  (The  Black  Swan)  has  been  lately  discovered  in  New 
Holland;  it  is  the  size  of  the  common  species,  but  its  carriage  is  less  grace- 
fill  and  elegant;  it  is  all  black,  the  primary  quills  excepted,  which  are  white, 
and  the  bill  with  the  naked  skin  on  its  base,  which  is  red. 

Anseh,  Briss. 
Geese  have  a  moderate  or  short  bill,  narrower  before  than  behind,  and 
liigher  than  wide  at  base;  their  legs,  being  longer  than  those  of  the  Ducks, 
and  placed  nearer  the  centre  of  the  body,  increase  their  facility  in  walking. 
Several  of  them  feed  on  seeds  and  plants.  There  is  no  inflation  at  the  root 
of  the  trachea,  nor  is  there  any  curve  in  that  organ  in  any  of  the  species 
known. 

Geese,  properly  so  called. 
Have  a  biU  as  long  as  their  head;  the  ends  of  the  lamellae  extend  to  its 
edges,  appearing  like  pointed  teeth. 


174  AVES. 

An.  anser,  L.  (The  Common  Goose),  which  has  acquired  all  sorts  of  colours 
in  our  poultry-yards,  orig-inates  from  a  wild  species  that  is  grey,  with  a 
brown  mantle  undulated  with  grey  and  an  orang'e-coloui-ed  beak,  the  Ans. 
cinereus,  Meyer. 

An.  hyperborea,  Gm.  (The  Snow-Goose.)  Wliite;  feet  and  bill  red;  tips 
of  the  wing-quills  black.  It  sometimes  wanders  into  the  temperate  parts  of 
Europe  during-  the  prevalence  of  heavy  gales  in  winter.  The  young  bird 
is  more  or  less  grey. 

BERIfAClES 

Are  distinguished  from  the  Common  Geese  by  a  shorter  and  slenderer 
bill,  the  edges  of  which  conceal  the  extremities  of  the  lamins. 

An.  bernicla,  Gm.  (The  LJrant.)  The  head,  neck,  and  quills  of  the  wings 
are  black,  the  mantle  a  brown-grey;  a  spot  on  each  side  of  the  upper  part 
of  the  neck,  and  the  under  part  of  tlie  tail,  white;  the  bill  black  and  feet 
brown. 

An.  segyptiaca,  Gm.  (The  Egyptian  Goose),  remarkable  for  the  lustre  of 
its  colours  and  tlie  small  spur  attached  to  its  wings,  also  belongs  to  this  sub- 
genus; it  is  sometimes  domesticated,  but  always  retains  a  propensity  to  re- 
turn to  its  wild  state.  It  is  tlie  Chenalopex  or  Fox-  Goose,  held  in  veneration 
among  the  ancient  Eyptians  on  account  of  its  attachment  to  its  young. 

Anas,  Meyer. 

Ducks,  properly  so  called,  have  the  bill  broader  at  base  than  it  is  high, 
and  wider  at  the  end  than  towards  the  head;  the  nostrils  nearer  to  its  back 
and  base.  Their  legs  being  shoi-ter  than  those  of  Geese,  and  placed  fai-ther 
back,  renders  walking  more  difficult  to  them  than  to  the  latter. 

The  species  of  the  first  division,  or  those  whose  thumb  is  bordered  with 
a  membrane,  have  a  larger  head,  a  shorter  neck,  the  feet  placed  farther 
back,  smaller  wings,  a  stiffer  tail,  more  compressed  tarsi,  longer  toes,  and 
the  membrane  of  the  feet  more  entire.  They  walk  with  more  difficulty, 
feed  more  exclusively  on  fish  and  insects,  and  dive  more  frequently. 

Ducks  are  now  disti-ibuted  into  various  subgenera:  such  as  Oidemia  (the 
Scoter,  Velvet  Duck,  Black  Duck) ;  Clangula  {luong  tailed  Duck);  Soma- 
teria  (Eider  Duck) ;  i^u//o-u/a  (Red-head,  Pochard  Duck,  Tufted  Duck); 
Rhynchaspis  (The  Shoveller);  and  Tadorna  (The  Shieldrake,  Muscovy 
Duck),  originally  from  South  America  where  it  perches  on  trees,  and  the 
An.  boschas,  L.  (or  Mallard),  tlie  stock  of  our  common  tame  Duck,  Teal,  &c. 

Mergus,  Lin. 
The  genus  of  the  Mergansers  comprehends  those  species  in  which  the  bill, 
thinner  and  more  cylindi-ical  than  that  of  the  Ducks,  is  armed  along  its 
edges  with  small  pointed  teeth  resembhng  those  of  a  saw  and  directed 
backwards;  the  tip  of  the  upper  mandible  is  hooked.  Their  carriage  and 
even  plumage  are  those  of  Ducks,  properly  so  called;  but  their  gizzard  is 
less  muscular.     Tlie  inflation  of  the  lower  larynx  in  the  males  is  enormous, 


PALMIPEDES.  175 

and  partly  membranous.     They  live  on  lakes  and  ponds,  where  they  are 
very  destructive  to  fish. 

Merg.  merganser,  L..  (The  Goosander),  is  the  size  of  a  Duck,  and  has 
red  feet  and  a  bill  of  the  same  hue.  The  head  of  the  old  male  is  of  a  deep 
green,  the  feathers  on  its  summit  forming-  a  sort  of  toupee;  the  mantle  is 
black,  with  a  white  spot  over  the  wing-;  underneath  and  the  neck  white 
slightly  tinged  with  rose-colour. 


CLASS  III. 
REPTILIA. 

The  disposition  of  the  heart  in  Reptiles  is  such,  that  at  each  con- 
traction, a  portion  only  of  the  blood  it  has  received  from  the  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  body  is  transmitted  to  the  lungs,  the  remainder 
returning  to  those  parts  without  having  passed  through  the  pulmo- 
nary organs,  and  without  having  respired. 

The  result  of  this  is,  that  the  action  of  oxygen  upon  the  blood  is 
less  than  in  the  Mammalia,  and  that  if  the  quantity  of  respiration  in 
the  latter,  in  which  all  the  blood  is  compelled  to  pass  through  the 
lungs  before  it  returns  to  the  rest  of  the  body,  be  expressed  by  a 
unit,  that  of  Reptiles  will  be  expressed  by  a  fraction  of  a  unit,  so 
much  the  smaller,  as  the  quantity  of  blood  transmitted  to  the  heart 
at  each  contraction  is  less. 

As  it  is  from  respiration  that  the  blood  derives  its  heat  and  the 
fibre  its  susceptibility  of  nervous  irritation,  the  blood  of  reptiles  is 
cold,  and  the  muscular  energy  less  than  that  of  Quadrupeds,  and 
much  less  than  that  of  Birds;  thus  we  find  their  movements  usually 
confined  to  crawhng  and  swimming;  for,  though  at  certain  times 
several  of  them  jump  and  run  with  considerable  activity,  their  habits 
are  generally  lazy,  their  digestion  excessively  slow,  and  their  sensa- 
tions obtuse.  In  cold  or  temperate  climates  almost  all  of  them  pass 
the  winter  in  a  state  of  torpor.  Their  brain,  which  is  proportionally 
very  small,  is  not  so  essentially  requisite  to  the  exercise  of  their  ani- 
mal and  vital  faculties,  as  to  the  members  of  the  two  first  classes; 
their  sensations  seem  to  be  less  referred  to  a  common  centre,  for 


176  REPTILIA. 

they  continue  to  live  and  to  exhibit  voluntary  motions,  long  after 
losing  their  brain,  and  even  after  the  loss  of  their  head.  A  commu- 
nication with  the  nervous  system  is  also  much  less  necessary  to  the 
contraction  of  their  fibres,  and  their  muscles  preserve  their  irrita- 
bility after  being  severed  from  the  body  much  longer  than  those  of 
the  preceding  classes;  their  heart  continues  to  pulsate  for  hours 
after  it  has  been  torn  away,  nor  does  its  loss  prevent  the  body  from 
moving  for  a  long  time. 

Thesmallness  of  the  pulmonary  vessels  permits  Reptiles  to  suspend 
the  process  of  respiration  without  arresting  the  course  of  the  blood; 
thus  they  dive  with  more  facility,  and  remain  longer  under  water 
than  either  the  Mammalia  or  Birds. 

No  Reptile  hatches  its  eggs.  The  young  Batrachians,  on  quitting 
the  egg,  have  the  form  and  branchiae  of  Fishes,  and  some  of  the 
genera  preserve  these  organs,  even  after  the  development  of  their 
lungs. 

The  quantity  of  respiration  in  Reptiles  is  not  fixed  like  that  of 
the  Mammalia  and  Birds,  but  varies  with  the  proportion  of  the 
diameter  of  the  pulmonary  artery  compared  to  that  of  the  aorta. 
Thus  Tortoises  and  Lizards  respire  more  than  Frogs,  &c.;  and 
hence  a  much  greater  difference  of  sensibility  and  energy  than  can 
exist  between  one  of  the  Mammalia  and  another,  or  between  Birds. 

The  comparison,  however,  of  their  quantity  of  respiration  and  of 
their  organs  of  motion,  has  enabled  M.  Brogniart  to  divide  them 
into  four  orders,  viz. 

The  Chelonia^  or  Tortoises,  whose  heart  has  two  auricles,  and 
whose  body,  supported  by  four  feet,  is  enveloped  by  two  plates  or 
bucklers  formed  by  the  ribs  and  sternum. 

The  Sauria,  or  Lizards^  whose  heart  has  two  auricles,  and  whose 
body,  supported  by  four  or  two  feet,  is  covered  with  scales. 

The  Ophidia,  or  Serpents^  whose  heart  has  two  auricles,  and 
whose  body  always  remains  deprived  of  feet. 

The  Batrachia,  whose  heart  has  but  one  auricle,  and  whose  body 
is  naked,  most  of  which  pass,  with  age,  from  the  form  of  a  Fish  re- 
spiring by  branchiae,  to  that  of  a  Quadruped  breathing  by  lungs. 
Some  of  them,  however,  always  retain  their  branchiae,  and  a  few 
have  never  more  than  two  feet. 


REPTILIA.  177 

ORDER  I. 

CHELONIA. 

The  Chelonia,  better  known  by  the  name  of  Tortoises,  have  a 
heart  composed  of  two  auricles,  and  of  a  ventricle  divided  in  two 
unequal  cavities,  which  communicate  with  each  other. 

These  animals  are  distinguished  at  the  first  glance  by  the  double 
shield  in  which  the  body  is  enveloped  and  which  allows  no  part  to 
project  except  their  head,  neck,  tail,  and  four  feet.  The  shell  (or 
upper  shield)  is  formed  by  the  ribs,  of  which  there  are  eight  pair, 
widened  and  reunited  by  denticulated  sutures,  and  with  plates  ad- 
hering to  the  annular  portion  of  the  dorsal  vertebra,  so  that  all  these 
parts  are  rendered  fixed  and  immovable.  The  inferior  shell  is 
formed  of  pieces,  usually  nine  in  number,  analogous  to  a  sternum. 
A  frame  composed  of  bony  pieces,  which  have  been  considered  as 
possessing  some  analogy  with  the  sternal  or  cartilaginous  portion  of 
the  ribs,  and  which  in  one  subgenus  always  remains  in  a  cartilagi- 
nous state,  surrounds  the  shell,  uniting  and  binding  together  all  the 
ribs  which  compose  it.  The  vertebras  of  the  neck  and  tail  are  con- 
sequently the  only  ones  which  are  movable. 

The  lungs  have  considerable  extent,  and  are  situated  in  the  same 
cavity  with  the  other  viscera.  The  thorax,  in  most  of  them,  being 
immovable,  it  is  by  the  play  of  its  mouth  that  the  Tortoise  respires, 
which  it  effects  by  keeping  the  jaws  closed,  and  alternately  raising 
and  depressing  the  os  hyoides.  The  former  of  these  motions  per- 
mits air  to  enter  through  the  nostrils,  the  tongue  then  closes  the  in- 
ternal orifice  of  those  apertures,  when  the  latter  forces  the  air  into 
the  lungs. 

Tortoises  have  no  teeth;  their  jaws  are  invested  with  horn  like 
those  of  Birds;  the  Chelydes  excepted,  where  they  are  covered  with 
skin  only. 

They  possess  great  tenacity  of  life,  and  instances  are  on  record 
in  which  they  have  been  seen  to  move  for  several  weeks  after  losing 
their  head.  They  require  but  little  nourishment,  and  can  pass  whole 
months  and  even  years  without  eating. 

The  Chelonia  were  all  united  in  the  genus 
X 


ITS  BEPTILIA. 

Testudo,  Lin. 
i  iiey  have  since  been  divided  into  five  subgenera,  chiefly  from  the  forms 
and  teguments  of  their  shell,  and  of  their  feet. 

Testudo,  Brog. 
The  Land  Tortoises  have  the  shell  arched  and  supported  by  a  solid,  bony 
frame,  most  of  its  lateral  edges  being  soldered  to  the  sternum;  the  legs,  as 
if  truncated,  with  very  short  toes,  which  are  closely  joined  as  far  as  the 
nails,  all  susceptible  of  ieing  withdrawn  between  the  bucklers;  there  are 
five  nails  to  tihie  fore-feet,  the  hind  ones  have  four,  all  stout  and  conical. 
Several  species  live  on  vegetable  food. 

Emxs,  Brongn. 

The  Fresh-water  Tortoises  have  no  other  constant  characters  by  which 
they  can  be  distinguished  from  the  preceding  ones,  than  the  greater  sepa- 
ration of  the  toes,  which  are  terminated  by  longer  nails,  and  the  intervals 
occupied  by  membranes;  even  in  this  respect  there  are  shades  of  difference. 
They  likewise  have  five  naUs  before  and  four  behind.  The  form  of  their 
feet  renders  their  habits  moi-e  aquatic.  Most  of  them  feed  on  Insects,  small 
Fishes,  &c.  Their  envelope  is' generally  more  flattened  than  that  of  the 
land  Tortoises. 

Among  the  fresh-water  Tortoises  we  should  remark  The  Box-Toktoises, 
the  sternum  of  which  is  divided  by  a  movable  articulation  into  two  lids, 
which,  when  the  head  and  limbs  are  withdi-awn,  completely  encase  the  ani- 
mal in  its  shell. 

Chelonia,  Brongn. 

The  envelope  of  the  Sea  Tortoises  is  too  small  to  receive  their  head,  and 
particularly  their  feet,  which  are  very  long  (tbe  anterior  ones  most  so),  and 
flattened  into  fins.  The  toes  are  all  closely  united  in  the  same  membrane, 
the  two  first  ones  of  each  foot  being,  alone  furnished  with  pointed  nails,  one 
or  other  of  which  at  a  certain  age  is  usually  lost.  The  pieces  of  then-  ster- 
num do  not  form  a  continuous  plate,  bat  are  variously  notched,  leaving 
considerable  intervals  which  are  filled  with  cai'tilage  only.  The  ribs  are 
narrowed  and  separated  from  each  other  at  their  external  extremities;  the 
circumference  of  the  shell,  however,  is  surrounded  with  a  circle  of  pieces 
corresponding  to  the  ribs  of  the  sternum. 

Test,  mydas,  L.  (The  Green  Tortoise)  is  distinguished  by  its  greenish 
plates,  thirteen  in  number,  which  are  not  ai-ranged  like  tiles;  those  of  the 
middle  range  are  almost  regular  hexagons.  It  is  found  from  six  to  seven 
feet  long,  and  weighing  from  seven  to  eight  hundred  pounds.  Its  flesh  is 
highly  esteemed,  and  furnishes  a  wholesome  and  palatable  supply  of  food 
to  the  mariner  in  every  latitude  of  the  tomd  zone.  It  feeds  in  large  troops 
on  the  sea-weed  at  the  bottom  of  the  ocean,  and  approaches  the  mouths  of 
rivers  to  respire.  The  eggs  it  deposits  in  the  sand  to  receive  the  vivifying 
influence  of  the  sun,  are  excellent  food;  its  shell  is  of  no  value. 


CHELONIA.  179 

Merrem  has  recently  distinguished,  by  the  name  of  Sphahgis,  those  Che- 
lonix  whose  shell  is  destitute  of  plates,  and  merely  covered  with  a  sort  of 
leather.     Such  is 

Test,  coriacea,  L.  A  very  large  species  of  the  Mediterranean.  Its  shell 
is  oval  and  pointed  behind,  exhibiting  three  projecting  longitudinal  ridges. 

Chelts,  Dum. 

The  Chelydes  resemble  fresh  water  Tortoises  in  their  feet  and  nails;  and 
their  most  dominant  character  consists  in  their  mouth,  which  opens  cross- 
wise, being  unarmed  with  the  horny  beak  common  to  the  other  Chelonis, 
and  similar  to  that  of  certain  Batrachians,  the  Fipa  in  particular. 

list.  Jimhria,  Gm.  The  shell  studded  with  pyramidal  elevations,  and  the 
body  edged  all  round  with  a  pinked  fringe.     It  is  found  in  Guiana. 

Triontx,  Geoff. 

The  Soft-shelled  Tortoises  have  no  scales,  the  shell  and  sternum  being 
simply  enveloped  by  a  soft  skin;  neither  of  those  shells  is  completely  sup- 
ported by  bones,  as  the  ribs  do  not  extend  to  the  edge  of  the  upper  one, 
and  are  united  with  each  other  only  for  a  portion  of  their  length,  the  parts 
analogous  to  the  sternal  ribs  being  simple  cartilage,  and  the  sternal  pieces 
partially  notched  as  in  the  sea-tortoises,  not  covering  the  whole  lower  sur- 
face. The  horn  of  their  beak  is  invested  externally  with  fleshy  lips,  and 
their  nose  is  prolonged  into  a  little  snout  Their  tail  is  very  short.  They 
live  in  fresh  water,  and  the  flexible  edges  of  their  shell  aid  them  in 
swimming. 

Test,  ferox,  Gm.  (The  Soft-shelled  Tortoise  of  America)  Inhabits  the 
rivers  of  Carolina,  Georgia,  the  Floridas,  and  of  Guiana.  It  remains  in  am- 
bush imder  roots  of  reecls,  &.c.  whence  it  seizes  birds,  reptiles,  &c.,  devours 
the  young  Alligators,  and  is  devoured  in  turn  by  the  old  ones.  Its  flesh  is 
highly  esteemed. 


■i 

■Ai 

ORDER  II. 

SAURIA.(l) 

The  Saurians  have  a  heart  like  that  of  the  Chelonia,  composed  of 
two  auricles  and  a  ventricle,  sometimes  divided  by  imperfect  par- 
titions. 

Their  ribs  are  movable,  partly  connected  with  the  sternum,  and 
rise  and  fall  in  respiration. 


(1)  From  (rxufni!  Lizard,  animals  analogous  to  Lizards. 


180  REPTILIA. 

Their  lung  extends  more  or  less  towards  the  posterior  extremity 
of  the  body;  it  frequently  penetrates  very  far  into  the  lower  part  of 
the  abdomen,  whose  transverse  muscles  pass  under  the  ribs,  and 
even  towards  the  neck,  to  clasp  it.  Those  in  which  this  organ  is 
very  large,  possess  the  singular  faculty  of  changing  the  colours  of 
their  skin  according  to  the  excitement  produced  in  them  by  their 
wants  or  passions. 

Their  eggs  are  enveloped  by  a  covering  more  or  less  hard,  and 
the  young  always  retain  the  form  in  which  they  quit  them. 

Their  mouth  is  always  armed  with  teeth,  and  their  toes,  with  very 
few  exceptions,  are  furnished  with  nails;  their  skin  is  covered  with 
scales,  more  or  less  compact,  or  at  least  with  scaly  granules.  They 
all  have  a  tail  more  or  less  long,  and  generally  very  thick  at  base; 
most  of  them  have  four  legs,  a  few  only  having  but  two. 


FAMILY  I. 

CROCODILIDA. 

This  family  contains  the  single  genus 

CROcoDiirs,  Br. 
Crocodiles  are  large  animals,  with  a  tail  flattened  on  the  sides,  five  toes  be- 
fore and  four  behind,  of  which  only  the  three  internal  ones  on  each  foot  are 
armed  with  nails,  all  more  or  less  united  by  membranes;  a  single  range  of 
pointed  teeth  in  each  jaw;  the  tongue  fleshy,  flat,  and  adhering  close  to  its 
edges;  a  circumstance  which  induced  the  ancients  to  believe  that  they  had 
none;  the  back  and  tiil  covered  with  very  stout,  large,  square  scales  or 
plates,  relieved  by  a  ridge  along  their  middle;  a  deeply  notched  crest  on 
the  tail,  which  is  double  at  its  base.  The  plates  on  the  belly  are  smooth, 
thin,  and  square.  Their  nostrils,  which  open  on  the  end  of  the  muzzle  by 
two  small  crescent-shaped  fissures  closed  by  valves,  communicate  with  the 
extremity  of  the  hind  part  of  the  mouth,  by  a  narrow  canal  which  traverses 
the  palatine  and  sphenoidal  bones. 

The  lower  jaw  being  continued  behind  the  cranium,  the  upper  one  ap- 
pears to  be  movable,  and  has  been  so  described  by  the  ancients;  it  only 
moves,  however,  with  the  entire  head. 

They  have  the  power  of  closing  the  external  ear  by  means  of  two  fleshy 
lips,  and  there  are  three  lids  to  their  eyes. 

The  vertebrae  of  the  neck  rest  on  each  other  through  the  medium  of  small 
false  ribs,  which  renders  all  lateral  motion  difiicult,  and  does  not  allow  these 


SAURIA.  181 

animals  to  deviate  suddenly  from  their  course;  consequently  it  is  easy  to 
escape  from  them  by  pursuing-  a  zig-zag  direction,  or  by  running  round  them. 

Their  eggs  are  as  large  and  hai'd  as  those  of  a  Goose;  the  females  keep 
careful  watch  over  them,  and  tenderly  protect  their  young  for  some  months. 
They  inhabit  fresli  water,  are  extremely  ferocious  and  carnivorous,  cannot 
swallow  under  water,  but  drown  their  prey,  and  place  it  in  some  submerged 
crevice  of  a  rock,  where  they  allow  it  to  putrefy  before  they  eat  it. 

The  species,  which  are  more  numerous  than  they  were  thought  to  be 
previous  to  my  observations,  are  referable  to  three  distinct  subgenera,  viz. 
Gavials,  true  Crocodii.es,  and  Alligators.     To  the  latter  belongs 

Croc,  lucius,  Cuv.  It  inhabits  the  southern  parts  of  North  America,  for- 
ces itself  into  the  mud  in  severe  winters,  and  remains  torpid.  The  female 
deposits  her  egg^  in  alternate  layers  with  beds  of  earth. 


FAMILY  II. 
LACERTINIDA.(1) 

This  family  is  distinguished  by  the  tongne,  which  is  thin,  extensi- 
ble, and  terminates  in  two  threads,  like  that  of  the  Coluber  and 
Viper;  the  body  is  elongated;  the  gait  rapid;  each  foot  has  five  toes 
separate  and  unequal,  the  hind  ones  particularly  so,  all  armed  with 
nails;  the  scales  on  the  belly  and  round  the  tail  are  arranged  in 
transverse  and  parallel  bands;  the  tympanum  is  level  with  the  head, 
or  but  slightly  sunk  and  membranous.  A  production  of  the  skin 
with  a  longitudinal  slit  which  is  closed  by  a  sphincter,  protects  the 
eye,  under  whose  anterior  angle  is  the  vestige  of  a  third  eye-lid;  the 
false  ribs  do  not  form  a  complete  circle. 

The  species  being  very  numerous  and  various,  we  subdivide  them 
into  two  great  genera. 

Monitor. 
This  genus  contains  species  of  the  largest  size;  they  have  two  teeth  in  both 
jaws,  but  none  in  the  palate;  the  greater  number  are  recognized  by  their 
laterally  compressed  tail,  which  renders  them  more  aquatic.  The  vicinity 
of  water  sometimes  brings  them  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Crocodiles  and 
Alligators,  and  it  is  said  that  by  whistling  they  give  notice  of  the  approach 
of  these  dangerous  animals.  This  report  is  most  probably  the  origin  of  the 
term  Sauvegarde  or  Monitor  applied  to  some  of  their  species,  but  the  fact  is 
very  uncertain. 

Lac.  nihtica,  L.     Strong  conical  teeth,  the  posterior  of  which  become 


(1)  Lacerta,  a  Lizard. 


182  REPTILIA. 

rounded  by  age;  brown,  with  pale  and  deeper  coloured  dots,  forming  vari 
ous  compartments,  among  which  we  observe  transverse  rows  of  large  ocel- 
lated  spots  that  become  rings  on  the  tail.  It  attains  a  leng-th  of  five  and  six 
feet.  The  Egyptians  pretend  it  is  a  young  Crocodile  hatched  in  a  dry 
place.  It  was  engraved  upon  the  monuments  of  that  country  by  its  ancient 
inhabitants,  and  possibly,  because  it  devours  the  eggs  of  the  Crocodile. 

Lacekta,  properly  so  called, 
Or  true  lAzards,  form  the  second  genus  of  the  Lacertians.  The  extremity 
of  their  palate  is  armed  with  two  rows  of  teeth,  and  they  are  otherwise 
distinguished  by  a  collar  under  the  neck,  formed  of  a  transverse  row  of  large 
scales,  separated  from  those  on  the  belly  by  a  space  covered  with  small  ones 
only,  like  those  under  the  throat;  and  by  the  circumstance  that  a  part  of  the 
cranium  projects  over  their  temples  and  orbits,  so  as  to  furnish  the  whole 
top  of  the  head  with  a  bony  buckler. 
They  are  very  numerous. 


FAMILY  III. 

IGUANIDA. 

This  third  great  family  of  Sauriana  possesses  the  general  form, 
long  tail,  and  free  and  unequal  toes  of  the  Lacertiansj  their  eye, 
ear,  &c.  are  also  similar,  but  their  tongue  is  fleshy,  thick,  non-ex- 
tensible, and  only  emarginated  at  the  tip. 

They  maybe  divided  into  two  sections;  in  the  first,  or  that  of  the 
Agamians,  there  are  no  palatine  teeth.  In  this  section  we  place 
the  following  genera. 

Stellio,  Cuv. 
In  addition  to  the  general  characters  of  the  family  of  the  Iguanida,  the  tail 
is  encircled  by  rings  composed  of  large  and  frequently  spiny  scales.     It  is 
divided  by  naturalists  into  various  subgenera. 

Agama,  Daud. 
The  Agamse  bear  a  great  resemblance  to  the  common  Stellios,  particularly 
in  their  inflated  head;  but  the  scales  of  their  taU,  which  are  imbricate  and 
not  verticillate,  distinguish  them  from  that  genus.  Their  maxillary  teeth 
are  nearly  similar,  and  there  are  none  in  the  palate.  This  genus  is  also  di- 
vided into  various  subgenera. 

IsTiURUS,  Cuv. 
The  distinguishing  character  of  this  genus  consists  in  an  elevated  and  tren- 


SAURIA.  183 

chant  crest,  which  extends  along  a  part  of  the  tail,  and  which  is  supported 
by  high  spinous  apophyses  of  the  vertebree;  this  crest  is  scaly  like  the  rest 
of  the  body;  the  scales  on  the  belly  and  tail  are  small,  and  approach  some- 
what to  a  square  form;  the  teeth  are  strong,  compressed,  and  without  den- 
ticulations:  there  are  none  in  the  palate:  there  is  a  series  of  femoral  pores. 
The  skin  of  the  throat  is  smooth  and  lax,  but  without  forming  a  dewlap. 

Draco,  L.(1) 
The  Dragons  are  distinguished  at  the  first  glance,  from  all  other  Saurians* 
by  their  first  six  false  ribs,  which,  instead  of  encircling  the  abdomen,  extend 
outwards  in  a  straight  line,  and  support  a  production  of  the  skin,  forming 
a  kind  of  wing  that  may  be  compared  to  that  of  a  Bat,  but  which  is  not 
connected  with  the  four  feet;  it  acts  like  a  parachute  in  supporting  them, 
when  they  leap  from  one  branch  to  another,  but  has  not  sufficient  power 
to  enable  them  to  rise  like  a  Bird.  They  are  small  animals,  completely  in- 
vested with  little  imbricated  scales,  of  which  those  on  the  tail  and  limbs  are 
carinated.  Their  tongue  is  fleshy,  but  slightly  extensible,  and  somewhat 
emarginate.  A  long  pointed  dewlap  hangs  under  their  throat. 
All  the  known  species  are  from  the  East  Indies. 

It  is  perhaps  to  this  tribe  of  Agamians  that  we  should  approxi- 
mate a  very  extraordinary  reptile  which  is  only  to  be  found  among 
the  fossils  of  the  old  Jura  limestone  formation. 

Ptehodactxlus,  Cuv. 
It  had  a  short  tail,  an  extremely  long  neck,  and  a  very  large  head;  the 
jaws  armed  with  equal  and  pointed  teeth;  but  its  chief  character  consisted 
in  the  excessive  elongation  of  the  second  toe  of  the  fore-foot,  which  was 
more  than  double  the  length  of  the  trunk,  and  most  probably  served  to 
support  some  membrane  which  enabled  the  animal  to  fly,  like  that  upheld 
by  the  ribs  of  the  Dragon. 

The  second  section  of  the  Iguanian  family,  that  of  the  Iguanians 
proper,  is  distinguished  from  the  jfirst  by  having  teeth  in  the  palate. 

Iguana,  Cuv. 
In  Iguana,  properly  so  called,  the  body  and  tail  are  covered  with  small  im- 
bricated scales;  along  the  entire  length  of  the  back  is  a  range  of  spines,  or 


(1)  The  term  eT^axaiv,  draco,  generally  designated  a  large  Serpent;  Dragons, 
with  a  crest  or  beard,  ai-e  spoken  of  by  ancient  writers,  a  description  which 
can  only  apply  to  the  Iguana;  Lucian  is  the  first  who  mentions  Flying 
Dragons,  alluding,  no  doubt,  to  the  pretended  Flying  Serpents  treated  of 
by  Herodotus.  St  Augustine,  and  other  subsequent  authors,  ever  after  de- 
scribed Dragons  as  having  wings. 


184  REPTILIA. 

rather  of  recurved,  compressed,  and  pointed  scales;  beneath  the  throat  a 
pendent,  compressed  dewlap,  the  edge  of  which  is  supported  by  a  cartila- 
ginous process  of  the  hyoid  bone;  a  series  of  porous  tubercles  on  their  thighs 
as  in  the  true  Lizards;  the  head  covered  with  plates.  Each  jaw  is  surround- 
ed  with  a  row  of  compressed,  triangular  teeth,  whose  cutting  edge  is  den- 
ticulate; two  small  rows  of  the  same  on  the  posterior  edge  of  the  palate. 

Ig.  tuberculata,  Laur.  (The  Common  American  Iguana.)  Yellowish 
green  above,  marbled  with  pure  green;  the  tail  annulated  with  brown,  &c. ; 
from  four  to  five  feet  in  length,  and  common  in  South  America  where  its  flesh 
is  esteemed  dehcious,  although  unwholesome.  It  lives  mostly  on  trees, 
occasionally  visits  the  water  and  feeds  on  fruit,  grain,  and  leaves;  the  female 
lays  her  eggs  in  the  sand,  they  are  the  size  of  those  of  a  Pigeon,  agreeable 
to  the  taste  and  almost  without  white. 

The  remaining  genera  are  Ophyressa,  Basiliscus,  Polychrus,  Echphimotus, 
Opiums,  and  Anolius,  the  last  of  which  is  remarkable  for  the  skin  of  the 
toes,  which  is  spread  out  into  a  disk,  that  enables  them  to  cling  to  various 
surfaces. 

It  is  to  this  family  of  the  Iguanae  with  palatine  teeth,  that  belongs 
an  enormous  fossil  reptile  known  by  the  name  of  the  Maestricht 
Animal,  and  for  which  the  new  name  of  Mosasaurus  has  recently 
been  coined. 


FAMILY  IV. 

GECKOTIDA. 

This  family  is  composed  of  nocturnal  Lizards  which  are  so  similar 
that  they  may  be  left  in  one  genus. 

Gecko,  Daud.(l) — Askalarotes,  Cuv. 
The  Geckos  are  Saurians  which  do  not  possess  the  elongated  graceful  form 
of  those  of  which  we  have  hitherto  spoken,  but  on  the  contrary  are  flattened, 
the  head  particularly.  Their  feet  are  moderate,  and  the  toes  almost  equal; 
their  gait  is  a  heavy  kind  of  crawling;  very  large  eyes,  whose  pupil  becomes 
narrowed  at  the  approach  of  light  like  that  of  a  Cat,  render  them  nocturnal 
animals,  which  secrete  themselves  during  the  day  in  dark  places.  Their 
very  short  eye-lids  are  completely  withdrawn  between  the  eye  and  the  orbit, 
which  gives  them  a  different  aspect  from  other  Saurians.  Their  tongue  is 
fleshy  and  non-extensible;  their  tympanum  somewhat  sunk;  their  jaws  every 


(1)  Gecko,  a  name  given  to  a  species  in  India,  in  imitation  of  its  cry,  just 
as  another  one  is  termed  Tockaie  at  Siam,  and  a  third  Geitje  at  the  Cape ; 
!t.ricst\ctCcel>i!,  the  Greek  name  of  the  Geckotte,  Lacep. 


SAURIA.  185 

where  furnished  with  a  range  of  very  small  closely-jointed  teeth;  their  palate 
without  teeth;  thcii*  skin  is  studded  above  with  very  small  granular  scales, 
among  which  are  often  found  larger  tubercles,  and  beneath,  covered  with 
scales  somewhat  smaller,  which  are  flat  and  imbricated. 

This  genus  is  numerous  and  disseminated  throughout  the  warm  portions 
of  both  continents.  The  melancholy  and  heavy  air  of  the  Gecko  superadd- 
ed to  a  certain  resemblance  it  bears  to  the  Salamander  and  the  Toad,  have 
rendered  it  the  object  of  hatred,  and  caused  it  to  be  considered  as  veno- 
mous, but  of  this  there  is  no  real  proof. 

The  toes  of  most  of  them  are  widened  along  the  whole  or  part  of  their 
length,  and  furnished  beneath  with  regular  plaits  of  skin,  which  enable  them 
to  adliere  so  closely,  that  they  are  sometimes  seen  crawling  along  ceilings. 

Tliey  are  now  divided  into  the  FlatidadyUy  Hemidadyli,  Thecadaciyli, 
&c.  &c.,  according  to  the  different  arrangement  of  the  toes. 

We  arc  compelled  to  establish 

FAMILY  V, 

CHAMiELEONIDA, 

For  the  single  genus, 

Chamjeleo,(  1 ) 
Or  tlie  Chameleons,  which  is  very  distinct  from  all  otlier  Saurian  genera; 
and  is  not  even  easily  intei'calated  in  their  series. 

Their  skin  is  roughened  by  scaly  granules,  their  body  compressed,  and  tlie 
back — if  we  may  so  express  it — trenchant;  tail  round  and  prehensile;  five 
toes  to  each  foot,  but  divided  into  two  bundles,  one  containing  two,  the 
other  three,  each  bundle  being  united  by  the  skin  down  to  the  nails;  the 
tongue  fleshy,  cylindrical,  and  susceptible  of  great  extension;  teeth  trilobate; 
eyes  large,  but  nearly  covered  by  the  sldn,  except  a  small  hole  opposite 
to  the  pupil,  and  possessing  the  faculty  of  moving  independently  of  each 
other;  no  visible  external  ear,  and  the  occiput  pyramidically  elevated.  Their 
first  ribs  are  joined  to  the  sternum;  the  following  ones  are  extended  each 
to  its  fellow  on  the  opposite  side,  so  as  to  enclose  tlie  abdomen  by  an  entire 
circle.  Their  lungs  are  so  enormous,  that  when  inflated,  their  body  seems 
to  be  transparent,  a  circumstance  which  induced  the  ancients  to  believe  that 
they  fed  on  air.     They  live  on  insects  which  they  capture  with  the  viscid  ex- 


(1)  Xa./xAt\ta>y  (Little  Lion),  the  Grecian  name  of  this  animal.  Aristotle, 
who  uses  it,  has  also  given  an  excellent  description  of  i1.  Hist.  An.  Lib. 
II,  cap.  ix. 


186  REPTILIA. 

tremity  of  their  tongue,  the  only  part  of  their  body  which  seems  to  be  endow- 
ed with  quickness  of  motion,  as  in  every  thing-  else  they  are  remarkable  for 
their  excessive  slowness.  The  great  extent  of  their  lungs  is  probably  the 
cause  of  their  faculty  of  changing  colour,  wliich  takes  place,  not  as  is 
thought  in  conformity  with  the  hue  of  the  bodies  on  which  they  rest,  but 
according  to  their  wants  and  passions.  Their  lungs,  in  fact,  render  them 
more  or  less  transparent,  compel  the  blood  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  to 
return  to  the  skin,  and  even  colour  that  fluid  more  or  less  vividly  in  propor- 
tion to  the  quantity  of  air  tliey  contain.     They  always  remain  on  trees. 

Lac.  africana,  Gm.  (The  Common  Chameleon.)  Thehood  pointed  and 
rehevedby  a  ridge  in  front;  the  granules  on  the  skin  equal  and  close;  the 
superior  crest  indented  as  far  as  half  the  length  of  the  back,  the  inferior  to 
the  anus.  The  hood  of  the  female  does  not  project  so  much  and  the 
denticulations  of  her  crests  are  smaller.  From  Egypt,  Barb ary,  and  even 
the  south  of  Spain,  and  India. 


FAMILY  VI. 

SCINCOIDEA. 

The  Scincoideans  are  known  by  their  short  feet,  non-extensible 
tongue,  and  the  equal  scales  which  cover  the  body  and  tail,  like  tiles. 

SciNCUs,  Daud. 
Four  short  feet;  the  body  and  tail  almost  one  continued  and  uniform  piece; 
no  enlargement  of  the  occiput;  without  crest  or  dewlap,  and  covered  with 
uniform,  shining  scales,  arranged  like  tiles,  or  those  of  a  Carp.  Some  of 
them  are  fusiform;  others,  more  or  less  elongated,  resemble  Serpents,  the 
Unguis  particularly,  to  which  they  are  related  by  several  internal  affinities, 
and  which  they  connect  with  the  family  of  the  Iguanida,  by  an  uninterrupted 
suite  of  transitions.  Their  tongue  is  fleshy,  but  slightly  extensible  and 
emarginate;  the  jaws  every  where  fui-nished  with  small,  closely  set  teeth. 
In  the  eye,  ear,  &c.,  they  bear  a  greater  or  less  resemblance  to  the  Iguanx 
and  Lizards;  the  feet  are  furnished  with  free  and unguiculated  toes. 

Seps,  Daud. 
Seps  only  differs  from  Scincus  in  the  more  elongated  body,  which  is  exactly 
similar  to  that  of  an  Anguis,  and  in  the  still  smaller  feet,  the  two  pairs  of 
which  are  further  apart.     Their  lungs  begin  to  exhibit  some  inequality. 

BiPEs,  Lacep. 
A  small  genus,  only  differing  from  Seps  in  the  entire  absence  of  fore  feet, 
having  the  scapulae  and  clavicles  concealed  beneath  the  skin,  the  hind  feet 
alone  being  visible.     There  is  but  a  step  from  it  to  Anguis. 


SAURIA.  187 

Chalcides,  Daud. 
Elongated  Lizards  resembling'  Serpents;  but  the  scales,  instead  of  being 
arranged  like  tiles,  are  rectangular,  forming  transverse  bands,  which  do  not 
encroach  on  each  other  like  those  on  the  tails  of  ordinary  Lizards. 

Chikotes,  Cuv. 
Similar  to  Chalcides  in  their  verticillate  scales,  and  still  more  so  to  the  Am- 
phisbaense  in  the  obtuse  form  of  their  head;  but  distinguished  from  the  former 
by  the  absence  of  hind  feet,  and  from  the  latter  by  the  presence  of  the  an- 
terior feet.     One  species  only  is  known,  which  is  found  in  Mexico. 


ORDER  III. 

OPHIDIA.(l) 

Serpents  are  reptiles  without  feet,  and  consequently  those  which 
best  merit  that  appellation.  Their  extremely  elongated  body  moves 
by  means  of  the  folds  it  forms  when  in  contact  with  the  ground. 
They  are  divided  into  three  families. 

FAMILY  I. 

ANGUINA.(2) 

The  Angues  still  have  an  osseous  head,  teeth,  and  tongue,  similar 
to  those  of  a  Seps;  their  eye  is  furnished  with  three  lids,  &.C.,  and, 
in  fact,  if  we  may  so  express  it,  they  are  Seps  without  feet;  they  are 
all  comprised  in  the  genus 

Anguis,  Lin. 
Characterized  externally  by  imbricated  scales,  with  which  they  are  com- 
pletely enveloped-  They  have  been  separated  into  four  subgenera;  in  the 
three  first  we  still  find  beneath  the  skin  the  bones  of  the  shoulder  and  pelvis. 
This  genus  is  now  subdivided  into  Paeudopus,  Ophisavrua,  Anguia  proper, 
and  Aamtias. 


(1)  0<^i(,  a  Serpent.        (2)  Anguis,  the  Latin  generic  term  for  Serpents. 


188  REPTILIA. 

FAMILY  II. 

SERPENTIA. 

The  true  Serpents,  which  are  by  far  the  most  numerous,  comprise 
the  genera  without  a  sternum,  and  in  which  there  is  no  vestige  of  a 
shoulder,  but  where  the  ribs  still  surround  a  great  part  of  the  circum- 
ference of  the  trunk,  and  where  the  body  of  each  vertebra  is  still 
articulated  by  a  convex  surface  to  a  cavity  in  the  succeeding  one. 
The  third  eye-lid  and  the  tympanum  are  deficient;  but  the  malleus  of 
the  ear  exists  under  the  skin,  and  its  handle  passes  behind  the 
tympanum.  There  is  still  a  vestige  of  a  posterior  limb,  concealed 
under  the  skin,  in  several  of  this  family,  and  which  in  some  of  them 
shows  its  extremity  externally  in  the  form  of  a  small  hook. 

We  subdivide  them  into  two  tribes. 

That  of  the  AMPHiSBiEN^E,  as  in  the  preceding  reptiles,  still  has 
the  lower  jaw  supported  by  a  tympanal  bone  directly  articulated  with 
the  cranium,  the  two  branches  of  this  jaw  soldered  together  in  front, 
and  those  of  the  upper  one  fixed  to  the  cranium  and  to  the  inter- 
maxillary bone,  circumstances  which  prevent  that  dilatation  of  the 
mouth  which  obtains  in  the  succeeding  tribe,  and  which  occasions 
a  uniformity  of  the  head  and  body,  a  form  which  enables  them  to 
move  backwards  or  forwards  with  equal  facility.  The  bony  frame 
of  the  orbit  is  incomplete  behind,  and  the  eye  very  small;  the  body 
is  covered  with  scales,  the  trachea  long,  and  the  heart  very  far  back. 
They  are  not  venomous. 

They  form  two  genera,  one  of  which  is  allied  to  Chalcides  and 
Chirotes,  and  the  other  to  Anguis  and  Acontias. 

Amphisbjena,  L.(1) 
The  whole  body  surrounded  with  circular  ranges  of  quadrangular  scales, 
like  the  Chalcides  and  the  Chirotes  among  the  Saurltns;  a  few  conical  teeth 
in  the  jaws,  but  none  in  the  palate.     There  is  but  one  lung. 

Two  species  have  long  been  known,  Amph.  alba,  Lacep.,  and  Amph.  full- 
ginosa,  Jj.,  both  from  South  America.  They  feed  on  Insects,  and  are  often 
found  in  Ant-hills,  which  has  occasioned  a  belief  among  the  people  that  the 
large  Ants  are  their  purveyors.     They  are  oviparous. 


(1)  From  ctfAtpti  and  QaIvuv,  walkmg  both  ways.     The  ancienta  attributed 
two  heads  to  it. 


OPHIDIA.  189 

Typhloi's,  Schn.(l) 
The  body  covered  with  small  imbricated  scales  like  Anguis,  with  which 
they  were  long  classed^  the  projecting  muzzle  furnished  with  plates;  tongue 
long  and  forked;  the  eye  resembling  a  point  hai'dly  visible  tlu-ough  the  skin; 
one  of  the  lungs  four  times  larger  than  the  other.  They  are  small  Serpents, 
at  the  first  glance  resembling  earth-worms;  they  are  found  in  the  hot  por- 
tions of  both  continents. 

In  the  second  tribe,  that  of  the  Serpentes,  or  Serpents  properly 
so  called,  the  tympanal  bone  or  pedicle  of  the  lower  jaw  is  naovable, 
and  is  itself  always  suspended  to  another  bone,  analogous  to  the 
.  mastoid  process,  attached  to  the  cranium  by  muscles  and  ligaments, 
which  allow  it  some  motion.  The  branches  of  this  jaw  are  not  so 
closely  united  with  each  other,  and  those  of  the  upper  one  are  merely 
connected  with  the  intermaxillary  bone  by  ligaments,  so  that  they 
can  separate  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  which  enables  these  animals 
so  to  dilate  their  mouths  as  to  swallow  bodies  larger  than  themselves. 

Their  palatine  arches  participate  in  this  facility  of  motion,  and 
are  armed  with  sharp  pointed  teeth  which  curve  backwards,  the 
most  predominant  and  constant  character  of  the  tribe.  Their  tra- 
chea is  very  long,  their  heart  very  far  back,  and  most  of  them  have 
but  one  large  lung  with  a  vestige  of  another. 

Serpents  are  divided  into  venomous  and  non-venomous;  and  the 
former  are  subdivided  into  such  as  are  venomous  with  several  max- 
illary teeth,  and  those  which  are  venomous  with  insulated  fangs. 

In  such  as  are  not  venomous,  the  branches  of  the  upper  jaw  as 
well  as  those  of  the  lower  one,  and  the  palatine  arches,  are  every 
where  furnished  with  fixed  and  solid  teeth;  there  are  then  four  equal 
rows  of  these  teeth  in  the  upper  part  of  the  mouth,  and  two  below. 

ToRTRix,  Oppel. 
Distinguished  from  Anguina,  even  externally,  inasmuch  as  the  scales  which 
form  the  range  along  the  belly  and  under  part  of  tlie  tail  are  a  little  lai-ger 
than  the  others,  and  the  tail  itself  is  extremely  short.    They  have  but  one 
lung. 

In  those  non-venomous  Serpents,  on  the  contrary,  where  the 
mastoid  bones  are  detached,  and  the  jaws  are  susceptible  of  great 


(1)  'Tij<pha>-^,  Tu<p\h>i,  bhnd,  were  the  names  of  the  Anguis  (slow-worm) 
among  the  Greeks. 


190  REPTILIA. 

dilatation,  the  occiput  is  more  or  less  enlarged,  and  the  tongue 
forked  and  very  extensible. 

They  have  long  been  divided  into  two  principal  genera,  Boa  and 
Coluber,  distinguished  by  the  simple  or  double  plates  on  the  under 
part  of  the  tail.     The  genus 

Boa,  Lin.(l) 
Formerly  comprized  all  those  Serpents,  venomous  or  not,  the  under  part 
of  whose  body  and  tail  is  furnished  with  uninterrupted,  transverse  scaly 
bands,  and  which  have  neither  spur  nor  rattle  at  the  end  of  the  tail.  As 
they  are  rather  numerous,  even  after  deducting  the  venomous  species,  the 
others  have  been  again  subdivided. 

The  Boa,  properly  so  called,  has  a  compressed  body,  thickest  in  the 
middle,  a  prehensile  tail,  and  small  scales  on  the  head,  at  least  on  its  poste- 
rior portion.  It  is  in  this  genus  that  are  found  the  largest  Serpents  on  the 
globe;  certain  species  attain  a  length  of  thirty  or  forty  feet,  preying  on 
Dogs,  Deer,  and  even  Oxen,  which  they  manage  to  swallow  entire,  after 
having  ci-ushed  them  in  their  folds  and  covered  them  with  saliva.  This 
operation  requires  much  time  and  an  enormous  dUatation  of  their  jaws  and 
throat.     Their  smaU  lung  is  but  half  the  length  of  the  other. 

Boa  constrictor,  L.  Known  by  a  broad  chain,  which  extends  along  the 
back,  formed  alternately  by  large,  blackish,  irregularly  hexagonal  spots, 
and  by  pale  oval  ones,  the  two  ends  of  which  are  emarginate. 

The  celebrated  Anaconda  is  a  true  Boa. 

Coluber,  Lin. 

This  genus  comprised  all  those  Serpents,  venomous  or  not,  whose  sub-cau- 
dal plates  are  divided  in  two,  that  is,  which  are  arranged  by  pairs. 

Independently  of  the  subtraction  of  the  venomous  species,  their  number 
is  so  enormously  great,  that  naturalists  have  had  recourse  to  all  sorts  of 
characters  to  subdivide  them. 

In  the  subgenus  PytJum  we  find  the  Col,  javanicus,  Sh.,  which  has  been 
found  thirty  feet  in  length.     Sunda  Islands. 

Serpents  which  are  venomous  par  excellence,  or  those  with  iso- 
lated fangs,  have  their  organs  of  manducation  constructed  on  a  very 
peculiar  plan. 

Their  superior  maxillary  bones  are  very  small,  attached  to  a  long 


(1)  Boa,  the  name  of  certain  Italian  Serpents  of  great  size,  most  pro- 
bably the  four  striped  Coluber,  or  •'  Serpent  of  Epidaurus"  of  the  Latins. 
Pliny  says  they  were  thus  named,  because  they  sucked  the  teats  of  Cows. 
The  Boa,  120  feet  long,  which  it  is  pretended  was  killed  in  Africa  by  the 
army  of  Regulus,  was  probably  a  Python.     See  Pliny,  lib.  VIII,  cap.  xiv. 


OPHIDIA.  191 

pedicle,  analogous  to  the  external  pterygoid  apophysis  of  the  sphenoid 
bone,  and  are  very  movable;  in  them  is  fixed  a  sharp  pointed  per- 
vious tooth,  through  which  flows  a  Hquor  secreted  by  a  large  gland, 
situated  under  the  eye.  It  is  this  liquor  which,  poured  into  the 
wound  made  by  the  tooth,  produces  effects,  more  or-less  violent, 
according  to  the  species  of  the  reptile  in  which  it  is  secreted.  This 
tooth,  when  the  animal  does  not  wish  to  use  it,  is  concealed  in  a 
fold  of  the  gum,  and  behind  it  are  several  germs  destined  to  replace 
it,  in  the  event  of  its  being  broken  in  a  wound.  These  venomous 
teeth  have  been  termed  by  naturalists  movable  fangs,  but  in  fact  it  is 
the  maxillary  bone  which  moves;  there  are  no  other  teeth  in  it,  so 
that  in  this  kind  of  dangerous  serpents  only  the  two  rows  of  palatine 
teeth  are  to  be  seen  in  the  upper  part  of  the  mouth. 

All  these  venomous  species,  whose  mode  of  production  is  well 
known,  bring  forth  living  young  ones,  as  their  eggs  are  hatched 
without  being  laid,  from  which  circumstance  is  derived  their  com- 
mon name  of  Vipers,  a  contraction  of  viviparous. 

Venomous  serpents  with  isolated  fangs  have  external  characters 
very  similar  to  those  of  the  preceding  ones,  but  in  the  greater  num- 
ber the  jaws  are  very  dilatable,  and  the  tongue  very  extensible.  The 
posterior  portion  of  their  head  being  broad,  generally  gives  them  a 
ferocious  aspect,  which  is  a  partial  indication  of  their  disposition. 
They  form  two  great  genera,  Crotalus  and  Vipeka,  the  second  of 
which  has  been  variously  subdivided,  and  some  smaller  ones  which 
group  around  them. 

Crotalus,  Lin. 

Rattlesnakes  are  pre-eminently  conspicuous  for  the  intensity  of  their  venom. 
As  in  Boa,  there  are  transverse  simple  plates  under  the  body  and  tail;  but 
their  most  distingxiishing  character  is  the  rattle  which  terminates  the  tail.  It 
is  formed  by  several  scaly  cornets  loosely  fitted  into  each  other,  which  move 
and  produce  the  peculiar  noise  from  which  they  receive  their  name  when- 
ever they  crawl  or  shake  that  part  of  the  body.  The  number  of  these  cor- 
nets increases  with  age,  an  additional  one  being  always  found  after  each 
moult.  There  is  a  little  round  indentation  or  pit  behind  each  nostril.  All 
the  species  whose  habitat  is  v/ell  asceilained  are  from  America.  The  dan- 
ger resulting  from  the  bite  of  these  noxious  reptiles  is  in  proportion  to  the 
warmth  of  the  climate  or  of  the  season;  their  natural  disposition,  however, 
is  tranquil,  and  they  are  rather  slow  and  heavy  in  their  motions,  never  bi- 
ting unless  provoked,  or  to  kill  the  prey  on  which  they  feed. 

Their  principal  food  consists  of  Birds,  Squirrels,  &c.  It  has  long  been 
supposed  that  it  possesses  the  faculty  of  rendering  them  powerless  by  its 


192  REPTILIA. 

breath,  or  even  of  charming  them,  as  it  Is  called,  by  which  they  are  com- 
pelled to  leap  into  its  mouth;  this,  however,  is  not  so,  and  the  reptile  in 
question  seizes  its  prey  while  under  the  agitation  and  terror  produced  by 
its  appeai'ance. 

In  most  of  the  species  there  are  scales  on  the  head  similar  to  those  on 
the  back. 

The  C.  horridus  or  the  Diamond  Rattlemahe,  the  C.  durissus  or  the 
Banded  Rattlesnake,  and  the  C.  miliaris  or  the  Ground  Rattlesnake,  a  smaller 
species,  but  the  most  dangerous  of  the  three,  all  inhabit  the  United  States. 
The  most  common  is  the  durissus,-  the  miliaris,  although  furnished  like  the 
others  with  an  apparatus  of  three  or  four  cornets  at  the  end  of  the  tail,  can 
make  no  noise  with  them.  The  plates  on  the  head  are  arranged  as  in  the 
genus  Coluber. 

ViPERA,  Daud. 
The  Vipers,  most  of  which  were  confounded  with  the  Colubers  by  Linnseus, 
on  account  of  their  double  sub-caudal  plates,  require  to  be  separated  from 
them  from  the  circumstance  of  their  having  poisonous  fangs.  There  are 
also  some  serpents  which  naturally  belong  to  this  division,  whose  sub-cau- 
dal plates  are  either  wholly  or  partially  simple-  They  are  all  distinguished 
from  the  Rattlesnakes  by  the  absence  of  the  pits  behind  the  nostrils. 

Vip.  brachyura,  Cuv.  (The  Minute  Viper.)  The  intensity  and  activity 
of  its  poison  render  it  one  of  the  most  terrible  of  the  genus.  The  genus  of 
the  Vipers  is  now  variously  subdivided.  To  one  of  these  subgenera,  Naia, 
belongs  the  celebrated 

Col.  haje,  h.  Greenish  bordered  with  brownish.  The  jugglers  of  Egypt, 
by  pressing  on  the  nape  of  the  neck  with  their  finger,  throw  it  into  a  kind 
of  catalepsy  which  renders  it  stiff  and  immovable,  or  turns  it  into  a  rod,  as 
they  term  it.  Its  habit  of  raising  itself  up  when  approached,  induced  the 
ancient  Egyptians  to  believe  that  it  was  the  guardian  of  the  fields  it  inhab- 
ited. They  made  it  the  emblem  of  the  protecting  divinity  of  the  world, 
and  sculptured  it  on  each  side  of  a  globe  upon  the  gates  of  their  temples. 
It  is  indubitably  the  serpent  described  by  the  ancients  under  the  name  of 
the  ^sp  of  Egypt,  Mp  of  Cleopatra,  &c. 

In  addition  to  these  two  tribes  of  Serpents,  properly  so  styled,  a 
third  has  lately  been  recognized,  in  which  the  organization  and  ar- 
mature of  the  jaws  are  nearly  the  same  as  in  the  non-venomous  ser- 
pents, but  where  the  first  maxillary  tooth,  larger  than  the  others,  is 
perforated  for  the  transmission  of  the  poison,  as  in  the  venomous 
serpents  with  isolated  fangs. 

These  Serpents  form  two  genera,  Bungarxjs  and  Hydrus,  dis- 
tinguisiied,  like  those  of  the  two  neighbouring  families,  by  the  cover- 
ing of  tlie  abdomen  and  the  under  part  of  the  tail. 


OPHIDIA.  193 

FAMILY  III. 

NUDA. 

Our  third  and  last  family  of  the  Ophidians,  that  of  the  Naked  Ser- 
pentSy  consists  of  but  one  very  singular  genus,  which  several  natu- 
ralists have  thought  fit  to  refer  to  the  Batrachians,  although  we  are 
ignorant  as  to  the  fact  of  its  undergoing  any  metamorphosis.  It 
is  the 

CECILIA,  Lin.(l) 

So  called  because  its  eyes,  excessively  small,  are  nearly  hidden  beneath  the 
skin,  and  sometimes  are  wanting.  The  skin  is  smooth,  viscous  and  fur- 
rowed by  annular  plsiits  or  wrinkles;  it  is  apparently  naked,  but  on  dissec- 
tion we  find  in  its  thickness,  perfectly  formed  though  delicate  scales, 
regularly  arranged  in  several  transverse  rows  between  the  folds  of  the  skin. 


ORDER  IV. 
BATRACHIA.(2) 

The  Batrachians  have  a  heart  composed  of  but  one  auricle- and 
one  ventricle.  They  all  have  two  equal  lungs,  to  which  at  first  are 
added  branchiae,  that  have  some  afiinity  with  those  of  Fishes,  and 
which  have  cartilaginous  arches  on  each  side  of  the  neck  attached 
to  the  hyoid  bone.  Most  of  them  lose  these  branchisB,  and  the  ap- 
paratus which  supports  them,  when  they  attain  a  state  of  maturity. 
Three  genera  only,  Siren,  Proteus,  and  Menobranchus,  retain  them 
for  life. 

As  long  as  these  branchia  remain,  the  aorta  is  divided  at  its  origin 
into  as  many  branches  on  each  side  as  there  are  branchiae.  The 
branchial  blood  is  brought  back  by  veins  which  unite  near  the  back 
in  one  arterial  trunk,  as  in  Fishes.  It  is  from  this  trunk,  or  imme- 
diately from  the  veins  which  form  it,  that  arise  most  of  the  arteries 


(ly  Casdlia,  from  T(ypx«4»  is  the  Latin  name  of  the  Slow-worm  (Orvet), 
which  in  several  parts  of  Europe  is  still  called  blind,  although  it  has  very 
fine  eyes. 

(2)  From  ^*T/iat;^of  (Frog),  animals  analogous  to  Frogs. 

z 


194  REPTILIA. 

which  nourish  the  body,  and  even  those  which  conduct  the  blood  to 
be  oxygenated  in  the  lungs. 

In  those  species,  however,  which  lose  their  branchiae,  the  attend- 
ant arteries  are  obliterated,  with  the  exception  of  two,  which  unite 
in  a  dorsal  artery,  giving,  each,  a  small  branch  to  the  lungs.  It  is 
the  circulation  of  a  Fish  metamorphosed  into  that  of  a  Reptile. 
Batrachians  have  neither  scales  nor  shell;  a  naked  skin  invests  their 
body,  and,  one  genus  excepted,  they  have  no  nails. 

The  envelope  of  the  ova  is  membranous.  These  eggs  become 
greatly  enlarged  in  the  water.  The  young  do  not  only  differ  from 
the  adult  in  the  presence  of  the  branchiae;  their  feet  are  developed 
by  degrees,  and  in  several  species  there  are  a  beak  and  tail,  which 
they  subsequently  lose,  and  intestines  of  a  different  form. 

Some  species  are  viviparous. 

Rana,  Lin. 

Frogs  have  four  legs  in  their  perfect  state,  but  no  taU.  Their  head  is  flat, 
muzzle  rounded,  and  the  opening'  of  their  jaws  large;  the  tongue,  in  most  of 
them,  is  soft,  and  not  attached  to  the  bottom  of  the  gullet,  but  to  the  edges 
of  the  jaw,  and  folds  inwards.  There  are  but  four  toes  to  the  anterior  feet; 
the  hind  ones  frequently  exhibit  the  rudiment  of  a  sixth. 

There  are  no  ribs  to  their  skeleton,  and  a  prominent  cartilaginous  plate 
supplies  the  place  of  a  tympanum,  and  renders  the  ear  visible  externally. 
The  eye  is  furnished  with  two  fleshy  lids,  and  a  third,  which  is  transparent 
and  horizontal,  concealed  under  the  lower  one. 

The  hind  feet  of  the  Tadpole  are  very  gradually  and  visibly  developed; 
the  fore  feet  are  also  developed,  but  under  the  skin,  through  which  they 
subsequently  penetrate.  The  tad  is  gradually  absorbed.  The  beak  faUs 
and  discloses  the  true  jaws,  which  at  first  were  soft  and  concealed  beneath 
the  skin;  and  the  branchiae  are  annihilated,  leaving  to  the  lungs  alone  the 
function  of  respiration  in  which  they  participated.  The  eyes  which  at  first 
could  only  be  discerned  through  a  transparent  spot  in  the  skin  of  the  Tad- 
pole, are  now  visible  with  their  three  lids.  Tadpoles  reproduce  their  limbs 
almost  Tike  Salamanders. 

The  period  at  which  each  of  these  changes  takes  place  varies  with  the 
species. 

In  cold  and  temperate  cUmates,  the  perfect  animal  passes  the  winter  un- 
der ground,  or  in  the  mud  under  water,  without  eating  or  breathing,  though 
if  we  prevent  it  from  respiring  during  the  summer  for  a  few  minutes  by 
keeping  its  mouth  open,  it  dies. 

HxLA,  Laur. 
Tree-Frogs  only  differ  from  Frogs  in  the  extremities  of  their  toes,  each  of 
which  is  expanded  into  around,  viscous  peUet,  that  enables  them  to  adhere 


BATRACHIA.  195 

to  the  surface  of  bodies  and  to  climb  trees,  where  in  fact  they  remain  all 
summer,  living  upon  insects.  They  spawn,  however,  in  water,  and  enter 
tlie  mud  in  water  like  other  Frog's.  There  is  a  pouch  under  the  tliroat  of 
the  male,  which  dilates  whenever  he  cries. 

Rana  arborea,  L.  (The  Common  Tree-Frog.)  Green  above,  pale  be- 
neath; a  black  and  yellow  line  along  each  side  of  the  body.  They  are  adult 
in  four  years.  The  Tadpole  completes  its  metamorphosis  in  the  month  of 
August. 

BuFo,  Laur. 

Toads  have  a  thick,  bulky  body  covered  with  warts  or  papills;  a  thick 
lump  behind  the  ears  pierced  with  pores,  from  which  issues  a  milky  and 
fetid  humour;  no  teeth;  the  hind  feet  but  shghtly  elongated.  They  leap 
badly,  and  generally  avoid  the  water.  They  are  hideous  and  disgusting 
animals,  whose  bite,  saliva,  &c.,  are  considered,  though  en-oneously,  as  poi- 
sonous. 

There  are  now  several  subgenera,  such  as  Rhinellus,  Otilophis,  Pipa,  &c. 

Salamandka,  Brongn. 

Salamanders  have  an  elongated  body,  four  feet  and  a  long  tail,  which  gives 
them  the  general  foi-m  of  Lizards,  with  which  Linnseus  placed  them:  but 
they  have  aU  the  characters  of  Batracliians. 

In  their  adult  state,  respiration  is  performed  as  in  Frogs  and  Tortoises. 
Their  tadpoles  at  first  breathe  by  means  of  branchiae  resembhng  tufts,  three 
on  each  side  of  the  neck,  which  are  subsequently  obhterated;  they  are  sus- 
pended to  cartilaginous  arches,  vestiges  of  which  remain  in  the  hyoid  bone 
of  the  adult.  A  membranous  operculum  covers  these  openings,  but  the 
tufts  are  never  enclosed  by  a  tunic,  and  always  float  externally.  The  fore 
feet  are  developed  before  the  hind  ones;  the  toes  appear  successively  in  the 
first  and  the  last. 

Salahansba,  Laur. 
The  terrestrial  Salamanders  in  a  perfect  state  have  a  round  tdl,  and  in- 
habit the  water  only  during  their  tadpole  condition,  which  is  but  a  short 
period,  or  when  the  female  is  ready  to  bring  forth.    The  eggs  are  hatched 
in  the  oviduct. 

TaiTON,  Laur. 
Aquatic  Salamanders  always  retain  the  vertically  compressed  t^,  and 
pass  nearly  the  whole  of  their  existence  in  the  water.  The  experiments  of 
Spallanzani  on  their  astonishing  power  of  reproduction,  have  rendered 
them  celebrated.  If  a  hmb  be  amputated,  another  is  reproduced  in  its  stead 
with  all  its  bones,  muscles,  vessels,  &c.  and  this  takes  place  several  times 
in  succession.  Another  not  less  singular  faculty,  discovered  by  Dufay,  is 
the  power  they  possess  of  remaining  enclosed  in  ice  for  a  considerable  time 
without  perishing. 


196  REPTILIA. 

Skeletons  of  a  salamander  three  feet  in  length  have'  been  discovered 
among  the  schist  of  CEningen.  One  of  them  is  the  pretended  Fossil  Man 
of  Scheucher. 

Immediately  after  the  Salamanders  come  several  very  similar  ani- 
mals, some  of  which  are  considered  as  having  been  always  destitute 
of  branchiae,  that  is,  they  probably  lose  them  at  as  early  a  period  as 
our  terrestrial  Salamanders;  the  others,  on  the  contrary,  retain  them 
for  life,  a  circumstance,  however,  which  does  not  prevent  their  hav- 
ing lungs  like  the  Batrachians,  so  that  they  may  be  considered  as 
the  only  vertebrate  animals  which  are  truly  amphibious. 

The  former  (those  in  which  no  branchias  are  visible)  constitute 
two  genera. 

Menopoma,  Harlan. 

Form  of  a  Salamander;  eyes  apparent,  the  feet  well  developed,  and  an  ori- 
fice on  each  side  of  the  neck .  Besides  the  range  of  small  maxillary  teeth, 
there  is  a  parallel  row  of  them  on  the  front  of  the  palate.  Such  is  the  rep- 
tile termed 

Sal.  gigantea.  Barton.  (The  Hellbender.)  From  fifteen  to  eighteen 
inches  long;  a  blackish  blue;  inhabits  the  lakes  and  the  rivers  of  the  inte- 
rior of  North  America. 

Amphiuma,  Garden. 

An  orifice  on  each  side  of  the  neck,  but  the  body  excessively  elongated;  the 
legs  and  feet,  on  the  contrary,  but  very  slightly  developed;  the  palatine  teeth 
form  two  longitudinal  ranges. 

Among  those  which  always  retain  their  branchiae,  the 

AXOLOTUS 
Is  in  every  respect  similar  to  the  larva  of  an  aquatic  Salamander,  having 
four  toes  before,  five  behind,  three  long  tufted  branchiae,  &c.     The  maxil- 
lary teeth  are  like  velvet,  and  those  on  the  vomer  in  two  bands. 

Menobranchus,  Harl. 
But  four  toes  to  all  the  feet;  a  range  of  teeth  in  the  intermaxillaries,  and  an- 
other, parallel,  but  more  extended,  in  the  maxillaries. 

The  species  most  known,  Menobranchus  lateralis,  Harl.;  Triton  lateralis. 
Say,  inhabits  the  great  lakes  of  North  America,  attaining,  as  it  is  said,  the 
length  of  two  and  tliree  feet.     It  was  first  obtained  from  Lake  Champlain. 

Proteus,  Laurent. 
But  three  toes  before  and  only  two  behind. 

Hitherto  but  a  single  species  has  been  discovered,  Proteus  anguinua. 


BATRACHIA.  197 

Laur.    More  than  a  foot  long-,  about  the  thickness  of  a  finger,  with  a  verti- 
cally compressed  tail  and  four  small  legs. 

Finally,  there  are  some  which  are  possessed  of  fore  feet  only,  the  hind 
ones  being  entirely  deficient.     They  form  the  genus 

SiEEN,  Lin. 
Sireiisare  elongated  animals,  almost  anguilliform,  with  three  branchial  tufts; 
they  have  no  hind  feet,  nor  is  there  even  a  vestige  of  a  pelvis.  Theii*  head 
is  depressed,  the  opening  of  their  mouth  small,  their  muzzle  obtuse,  eye 
very  small  and  ear  concealed;  the  lower  jaw  is  armed  with  teeth  all  round, 
and  there  are  none  in  the  upper  one,  but  there  are  several  rows  of  them  ad- 
hering to  two  plates  fixed  under  each  side  of  the  palate. 

S.  lacertina,  L.  Blackish,  and  attains  the  length  of  three  feet;  four  toes 
to  each  foot;  tail  compressed  into  an  obtuse  fin.  It  inhabits  the  marshes  of 
Carolina,  the  rice  swamps  particularly,  where  it  lives  in  the  mud,  occasion- 
ally going  on  shore  or  into  the  water.  It  feeds  on  lumbrici,  insects,  &c. 
There  are  two  much  smaller  species. 


CLASS  IV. 
PISCES. 

The  class  of  Fishes  is  composed  of  oviparous  Vertebrata  with  a 
double  circulation,  but  in  which  respiration  is  altogether  effected 
through  the  medium  of  water.  For  this  purpose,  on  each  side  of 
the  neck,  they  have  an  apparatus  called  branchiae,  or  gills,  which 
consist  of  laminae  suspended  on  arches  that  are  attached  to  the  hyoid 
bone,  each  composed  of  numerous  separate  lamina  and  covered 
with  a  tissue  of  innumerable  blood-vessels.  The  water  which  the 
fish  swallows,  escapes  between  these  laminae  through  the  branchial 
openings,  and  by  means  of  the  air  it  contains,  acts  upon  the  blood 
that  is  continually  arriving  in  the  branchiae  from  the  heart,  which  only 
represents  the  right  auricle  and  ventricle  of  warm-blooded  animals. 
This  blood,  having  received  the  benefit  of  respiration,  is  poured  into 
an  arterial  trunk  situated  under  the  spine,  which,  exercising  the 
functions  of  a  left  ventricle,  distributes  it  to  every  part  of  the  body, 
whence  it  returns  to  the  heart  by  the  veins. 

The  entire  structure  of  the  Fish  is  as  evidently  adapted  for  natation, 


198  PISCES. 

as  that  of  the  Bird  for  flight.  Suspended  in  a  liquid  of  nearly  the 
same  specific  gravity  as  its  own  body,  there  was  no  necessity  for 
large  wings  to  support  it.  In  a  great  number  of  species,  immedi- 
ately under  the  spine  there  is  a  bladder  filled  with  air,  which,  by 
compression  or  dilatation,  varies  the  specific  gravity  of  the  fish  and 
assists  it  to  rise  or  descend.  Progression  is  effected  by  the  motions 
of  the  tail,  which,  by  striking  the  water  alternately  right  and  left, 
forces  them  forward;  the  branchiae,  by  impelhng  the  water  back- 
wards, may  also  contribute  to  this  effect.  The  limbs  being  thus  of 
but  little  use,  are  greatly  reduced;  the  parts  analogous  to  the  bones 
of  the  arms  and  legs  are  extremely  short,  or  even  completely  con- 
cealed; rays,  more  or  less  numerous,  which  support  membranous 
fins,  form  a  rude  representation  of  the  fingers  and  toes.  The  fins 
which  correspond  to  the  anterior  extremities  are  termed  pectorals, 
and  those  which  answer  to  the  posterior  ones,  ventrals.  Other  rays 
attached  to  particular  bones  placed  on  or  between  the  extremities 
of  the  spinous  apophyses  support  vertical  fins  on  the  back,  under  the 
tail,  and  at  its  extremity,  which,  by  being  raised  or  lowered,  increase 
or  diminish  the  surface  which  strikes  against  the  water.  The  su- 
perior fins  are  called  dorsal,  the  inferior  anal,  and  that  at  the  end  of 
the  tail  caudal.  The  rays  are  of  two  kinds;  some  of  them  consist 
of  a  single  bony  piece,  usually  hard  and  pointed,  sometimes  flexible 
and  elastic,  divided  longitudinally — these  are  called  spinous  rays; 
others  are  composed  of  a  great  number  of  small  articulations,  and 
generally  divided  into  branches  at  their  extremity — they  are  the 
soft,  articulated,  or  branched  rays. 

There  is  as  much  variety  among  Fishes,  with  respect  to  the  number 
of  limbs,  as  among  Reptiles.  Most  generally  there  are  four;  some 
have  but  two,  and  in  others  they  are  totally  wanting.  The  bone 
which  is  analogous  to  the  scapula,  is  sometimes  held  among  the 
muscles  as  in  the  higher  animals,  and  at  others  is  attached  to  the 
spine,  but  most  commonly  it  is  suspended  on  the  cranium.  The 
pelvis  rarely  adheres  to  the  spine,  and  very  frequently,  instead  of 
being  behind  the  abdomen,  is  before  it,  and  connected  with  the  hu- 
meral apparatus. 

Besides  the  usual  parts  of  the  brain  which  are  arranged  as  in 
Reptiles  one  after  the  other,  Fishes  have  knots  or  ganglions  at  the 
base  of  their  olfactory  nerves. 

Their  nostrils  are  simple  cavities  at  the  end  of  the  muzzle  almost 


PISCES.  199 

always  perforated  by  two  holes,  and  regularly  lined  by  a  plated  pi- 
tuitary membrane. 

The  cornea  of  their  eye  is  very  flat,  and  there  is  but  little  aqueous 
humour,  but  the  crystalline  is  very  hard  and  almost  globular. 

The  sense  of  taste  in  Fishes  can  have  but  little  energy,  as  a  great 
portion  of  the  tongue  is  osseous,  and  frequently  furnished  with  teeth 
and  other  hard  parts. 

The  body  in  most  of  them  is  covered  with  scales,  and  none  pos- 
sess organs  of  prehension ;  the  fleshy  cirri  of  some  may  supply  the 
imperfection  of  the  other  organs  of  touch. 

Teeth  are  found  in  their  intermaxillary,  maxillary,  lower  jaw, 
vomer,  bones  of  the  palate,  on  the  tongue,  on  the  arches  of  the 
branchiee,  and  even  on  bones  behind  these  arches,  attached  like  them 
to  the  hyoides,  called  pharyngeal  bones. 

The  varieties  of  these  combinations,  as  well  as  those  of  the  form 
of  the  teeth  placed  at  each  point,  are  innumerable. 

Besides  the  apparatus  of  the  branchial  arches,  the  hyoid  bone  is 
furnished  on  each  side  with  rays  which  support  the  branchial  mem- 
brane. A  sort  of  lid  composed  of  three  bony  pieces,  the  operculum, 
the  suboperculum,  and  the  interoperculum,  unites  with  this  membrane 
in  closing  the  great  opening  of  the  gills;  it  is  articulated  with  the 
tympanal  bone,  and  plays  on  one  called  the  preoperculum.  In  many 
of  the  Chondropterygii  this  apparatus  is  wanting. 

Fishes  form  two  distinct  series,  thd^t  of  FisnEs  properly  so  styled^ 
and  that  of  the  Chondropterygii,  otherwise  called  Cartilaginous 
Fishes. 


ORDER  I. 

ACANTHOPTERYGII.(l) 

The  Acanthopterygii  form  the  first  and  by  far  the  most  numerous 
division  of  ordinary  Fishes.  They  are  recognized  by  the  spines 
which  occupy  the  place  of  the  first  rays  of  their  dorsal,  or  which 
alone  support  the  first  fin  of  the  back,  where  there  are  two;  some- 

(1)  Spiny-fins, 


SOO  PISCES. 

times,  instead  of  a  first  dorsal,  there  are  only  a  few  free  spines.  The 
first  rays  of  their  anal  are  also  spines,  and  there  is  generally  one  to 
each  ventral. 


FAMILY  I. 
PERCOIDES. 

This  family  is  so  called  because  its  type  is  the  Common  Perch. 
It  comprehends  fishes  with  oblong  bodies,  covered  with  scales  that 
are  generally  hard  or  rough,  and  whose  operculum  or  preopercu- 
lum,  and  frequently  both,  have  dentated  or  spinous  edges,  and  whose 
jaws,  the  fore-part  of  the  vomer,  and  generally  the  palatine  bones, 
are  furnished  with  teeth. 

The  species  are  extremely  numerous,  particularly  in  the  seas  of 
hot  climates;  their  flesh  is  generally  wholesome  and  agreeable. 

In  the  first  subdivision  we  find  seven  rays  in  the  branchiae,  two 
fins  on  the  back,  and  all  the  teeth  small  and  crowded. 

Perca,  Cuv. 
The  true  Perches  have  the  preoperculum  dentated;  the  bony  operculum 
terminated  by  two  or  thi'ee  sharp  points  and  a  smooth  tongue.    Sometimes 
the  sub-orbital  and  the  humeral  are  slighty  dentated.     North  America  pro- 
duces several  species. 

Labrax,  Cuv. 

Distinguished  from  the  Perches  by  scaly  opercula  terminating  in  two  spines, 
and  by  a  rough  tongue. 

The  United  States  produce  a  large  and  beautiful  species,  Labr.  Hneatus, 
Cuv.  (The  Rock-fish),  with  longitudinal  blackish  stripes. 

The  remaining  genera  of  this  division  are  Lates,  Centropomus,  Grammis- 
tes,  Aapro,  &c.  &c.  diffei-ing  in  various  particulars  relative  to  the  operculum 
and  preoperculum,  armature  of  the  jaws,  &c. 

A  second  subdivision  comprises  Percoides  with  two  dorsal  fins, 
and  long  and  pointed  teeth  mingled  with  the  small  and  crowded  ones. 

There  are  two  genera,  Ambassis,  Lucio-Perca  or  Perch-Pike. 

A  second  division  comprises  Percoides  with  seven  branchial 
rays  and  one  dorsal.     They  are  subdivided  in  nearly  the  same  way 


ACANTHOPTERYGII.  201 

as  the  preceding  ones,  as  by  their  teeth  which  are  either  hooked  or 
all  small  and  crowded;  notches  and  spines  on  the  opercula,  &c. 
In  the  subdivision,  furnished  with  hooked  teeth,  we  find, 

Serranus,  Cuv. 
Preoperculum  dentate;  the  bony  operculum  terminating  in  one  or  several 
points.     This  genus  contains  a  vast  number  of  species,  and  is  divided  into 
several  subgenera. 

We  now  pass  to  Percoides  with  seven  branchial  rays,  and  a  sin- 
gle dorsal,  the  teeth  small  and  crowded. 

They  are  distributed  under  the  genera  Acerina,  Rypticus,  Ceniroprisiis 
(to  which  belongs  our  Black  Perch)  and  Grisies. 

The  genus  Perca,  as  defined  by  Artedi  and  Linnaeus,  terminates 
here;  but  there  remains  a  number  of  fishes  which  approach  it,  al- 
though peculiar  characters  compel  naturalists  to  arrange  them  in 
separate  genera,  such  as  Cirrhites,  Chironemus,  Pomofw, (our  Pond- 
Perch)  Centrarchusy  &.c.  &.c. 

PoMOTis,  Cuv, 
Fishes,  with  a  compressed  and  oval  body,  characterized  by  a  membranous 
prolongation  at  the  angle  of  the  operculum.     They  inhabit  the  rivers,  &c. 
of  America,  where  they  are  called  Pond-Perch. 

We  now  pass  to  those  Percoides  which  have  more  than  seven 
rays  to  the  branchiag.  Three  genera  are  known,  all  of  which  pre- 
sent the  following  peculiarity:  their  ventrals  have  a  spine  and  seven 
or  more  soft  rays,  while  in  other  Acanthopterygii  there  are  never 
more  than  five  soft  rays. 

HoLOCENTRTiM,  Artedi, 
The  scales  of  these  beautiful  fishes  are  brilliant  and  dentated;  operculum 
dentated  and  spinous;  preoperculum  dentated  with  a  stout  spine  at  the  an- 
gle, which  is  directed  backwards.     They  are  found  in  the  hot  parts  of  both 
oceans. 

Mybipristis,  Cuv. 

The  brilliancy,  shape  and  scales  of  the  Holocentra,  but  the  preoperculum 
has  a  dentated  double  border,  and  there  is  no  spine  at  the  angle.     They  in- 
habit the  hot  parts  of  both  oceans. 
2  A 


202  PISCES. 

Beryx,  Cuv. 
Differs  from  M3rripristls  in  having  but  a  single  short  dorsal,  with  but  a  few 
small  spines,  almost  hidden  in  its  anterior  edge;  ten  soft  rays  in  the  ventrals. 

All  the  Percoides  of  which  we  have  hitherto  spoken,  have  their 
ventrals  inserted  under  the  pectorals;  there  are  some  genera,  how- 
ever, in  which  they  are  differently  located. 

In  the  JuGULAKEs,  they  are  placed  on  the  throat  further  forwards 
than  the  pectorals. 

Trachinus,  Lin. 
A  compressed  head,  approximated  eyes,  and  an  oblique  mouth;  the  first 
dorsal  very  short,  the  second  very  long;  pectorals  large,  and  a  stout  spine 
on  the  operculum.  They  generally  remain  concealed  in  the  sand;  wounds 
inflicted  by  the  spines  of  their  first  dorsal  are  much  dreaded,  but  their  flesh 
is  esteemed.     Several  species  are  found  in  the  Atlantic,  &c. 

Track,  draco,  L.  (The  Dragon  Weaver.)  Grey  and  reddish,  with 
blackish  spots;  blue  streaks  and  yellow  tints;  thirty  rays  to  the  second  dor- 
sal; flanks  obliquely  striated. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  genera  of  the  Jugulares  is  that  of 

Uranoscoptjs,  Lin. 
So  called  because  the  eyes  are  placed  on  the  superior  surface  of  the  nearly 
cubical  head,  and  look  upwards:  the  mouth  is  cleft  vertically;  the  lower 
part  of  the  preoperculum  is  crenate,  and  there  is  a  stout  spine  to  each 
shoulder;  but  six  rays  in  the  branchise.  In  the  mouth  and  before  the  tongue 
is  a  long  and  narrow  slip,  which  can  be  protruded  at  the  will  of  the  fish,  and 
serves,  it  is  said,  to  attract  small  ones,  while  it  remains  concealed  in 
the  mud.    They  are  commonly  termed  Star-gazers. 

In  a  third  division  of  the  Percoides,  the  ventrals  are  inserted  fur- 
ther back  than  the  pectorals:  they  are  the  Abdominales.  The  first 
genus  is 

POLYNEMUS,  L. 

So  named  because  several  of  the  inferior  pectoral  rays  are  free,  and  form  so 
many  filaments;  the  ventrals  are  not  very  far  back,  and  the  pelvis  is  still 
suspended  to  the  bones  of  the  shoulder.  They  are  allied  to  the  Percoides 
by  the  teeth,  either  small  and  crowded,  or  bent  back  like  those  of  a  wool- 
card,  which  arm  their  jaws,  vomer,  and  palate;  but  their  snout  is  convex, 
and  the  vertical  fins  scaly  as  in  many  of  the  Scienoides:  the  two  dorsals  are 
separated,  the  preoperculum  is  dentated  and  the  mouth  deeply  cleft:  they 
are  found  in  all  the  seas  of  hot  climates. 
Pol.  paradiseus,  L.  (The  Mango  Fish.)  So  called  from  its  fine  yellow 


ACANTHOPTERYGII.  203 

colour:  has  seven  filaments  on  each  side,  the  first  of  which  are  twice  the 
length  of  the  body.    It  is  the  most  delicious  fish  found  in  Bengal. 

In  the  succeeding  genera  the  ventrals  are  altogether  behind,  and 
the  pelvis  no  longer  adheres  to  the  bones  of  the  shoulder. 

The  genera  are  Sphyraena,  Paralepis,  and  Mullus,  (or  the  Surmullet  of 
Europe.) 


FAMILY  II. 
BUCCiE  LORICATE. 

The  family  of  the  Mailed- Cheeks^  contains  a  numerous  suite  of 
fishes  to  which  the  singular  appearance  of  their  head,  variously 
mailed  and  protected,  gives  a  peculiar  aspect  that  has  always  caused 
them  to  be  arranged  in  special  genera,  although  they  have  many 
close  affinities  with  the  Perches.  Their  common  character  consists 
in  the  sub-orbital  being  more  or  less  extended  over  the  cheek  and 
articulated  behind  with  the  preoperculum.  The  Uranoscopus  is 
the  only  one  of  the  preceding  family  which  has  any  thing  like  it,  but 
the  sub-orbital  of  the  latter,  although  very  broad,  is  connected  be- 
hind with  the  temporal  bones,  and  not  with  the  preoperculum. 

Linnaeus  divided  them  into  three  genera,  Tkigla,  Cottus,  and 
Scorp^na;  it  has  been  found  necessary,  however,  to  subdivide  them, 
and  to  add  some  of  his  Gasterostei. 

Trigla,  Lin. 
The  above  character  strongly  marked;  an  enormous  sub-orbital  completely 
covering  the  cheek,  and  even  articulated  by  an  immovable  suture  with  the 
preoperculum,  so  as  to  allow  of  no  separate  motion;  sides  of  tlie  head  nearly 
vertical,  giving  it  a  form  approaching  that  of  a  cube,  or  parallelopiped,  the 
bones  hard  and  rough.  There  are  two  distinct  dorsals,  and  three  free  rays 
under  the  pectoral.  Several  species,  when  caught,  utter  sounds  which 
have  procured  for  them  in  France  their  vulgar  name  of  Grondins,'  in  Eng- 
land they  are  called  Gurnards, 
The  best  of  these  divisions  is  the 

Dactyloptertjs,  Lacep. 

So  celebrated  under  the  name  of  Flying  Fishes,-  the  subpectoral  rays  are 
much  more  numerous  and  longer;  and  intead  of  being  free,  as  in  the  prece- 
ding ones,  they  are  united  by  a  membrane  so  as  to  form  a  supernumerary 


204  PISCES. 

fin,  longer  than  the  fish,  which  supports  it  in  the  air  for  some  time.  Thus 
they  are  seen  flying  above  the  surface  of  the  water,  in  order  to  escape  from 
Dolphins  and  other  varacious  fishes;  they  fall  into  it  again,  however,  in  a 
few  seconds. 

D.  volitans,  the  Mediterranean  species,  is  a  foot  long?  brown  above; 
reddish  beneath;  fins  black,  variously  marked  with  blue. 

J),  orientalis,  Cuv.,  is  a  neighbouring  species  from  the  Indian  Ocean. 

CoTTus,  Lin. 

Head  broad,  depressed,  mailed,  and  variously  armed  with  spines  or  tuber- 
cles; two  dorsals;  teetli  front  of  the  vomer,  but  none  on  the  palatines;  six 
rays  in  the  branchiae,  and  only  three  or  four  in  the  ventrals.  The  inferior 
pectoral  rays,  as  in  Trachinus,  are  not  branched. 

Those  that  inhabit  fresh  water  have  a  neai-ly  smooth  head,  and  but  one 
spine  to  the  preoperculum;  their  first  dorsal  is  very  low.  The  most  com- 
mon species  is 

C.  gohio,  L.  (The  River  Bull-head. )  A  small  blackish  fish,  four  or  five 
inches  in  length. 

The  salt  water  species  are  more  spinous,  and  when  irritated  their  head 
becomes  still  more  inflated.     Such  is 

C.  scorpius,  L.  (The  Father-Lasher.)  Three  spines  on  the  preoper- 
culum. 

Other  groups  have  lately  been  observed,  which  are  partly  allied 
to  Cottus  and  partly  to  Scorpaena.     One  of  them  is  the 

Hemitripterus,  Cuv. 
The  head  depressed,  and  two  dorsals  as  in  Cottus;  no  regular  scales  on  the 
skin,  but  teeth  in  the  palate.     The  head  is  bristly  and  spinous,  and  has  seve- 
ral cutaneous  appendages.     The  first  dorsal  is  deeply  emarginate,  a  circiim- 
stance  which  has  led  some  authors  to  believe  they  had  three. 

But  one  species  is  known,  (from  North  America,)  Cottus  tripterygtus, 
which  is  taken  along  with  the  Cod.  From  one  to  two  feet  long,  tinged  with 
yellow  and  red,  varied  with  brown. 

ScoRP^NA,  Lin. 

The  head,  like  that  of  a  Cottus,  mailed  and  roughened,  but  compressed  on 
the  sides;  body  covered  with  scales;  several  rays  in  the  branchise,  and  but  a 
single  dorsal.  If  we  except  the  armature  of  the  cheek,  and  the  tubercles, 
which  frequently  give  them  an  odd  appearance,  they  closely  approximate 
to  certain  Percoides,  such  as  the  Acerinae  andtheCentropristes;  but  though 
the  inferior  rays  of  their  pectorals,  as  in  Cottus,  are  articulated,  they  are 
simple  and  not  branched. 

The  remaining  genera  allied  to  or  separated  from  Scorpxna  are  Pterois, 
Blepsiast  Apistus,  Jgriopus,  Pelor,  Gasterosteua  (Stickle-backs  of  Europe) 
and  the 


ACANTHOPTERYGII.  205 

MoNocENTRis,  Bl.  Schn. 
A  singular  genus;  the  body  is  short,  thick,  and  completely  mailed  with 
enormous  angular,  rough,  and  carinatcd  scales;  four  or  five  stout  free  spines 
supply  the  place  of  the  first  dorsal;  each  ventral  consists  of  an  immense 
spine,  in  the  angle  of  which  a  few  soft  and  almost  imperceptible  rays  are 
concealed;  head  bulky  and  mailed;  front  gibbous;  mouth  large;  short  crow- 
ded teeth  in  the  jaws  and  palatines,  but  none  in  the  vomer;  eight  rays  in  the 
branchiae.     But  one  species  is  known;  the 

Mon.japonica,  Bl.  Schn.     Six  inches  long,  of  a  silvery  white.     From  the 
sea  of  Japan. 

After  this  family  we  place  the 

Oreosoma,  Cuv. 
A  small  oval  fish,  whose  whole  body,  above  and  beneath,  is  studded  with 
thick  cones  of  a  hea^y  substance.     There  are  four  of  them  on  the  back,  and 
ten  on  the  belly,  arranged  in  two  series,  with  smaller  intermediate  ones. 
It  was  discovered  in  the  Atlantic,  by  Peron. 


FAMILY  III. 

SCIENOIDES. 

This  family  is  closely  related  to  the  Percoides,  and  even  presents 
nearly  similar  combinations  of  external  characters,  particularly  in  the 
indentations  of  the  preoperculum,  and  in  the  spines  of  the  opercu- 
lum; but  both  vomer  and  palatines  are  without  teeth;  the  bones  of 
the  cranium  and  face  are  generally  cavernous,  and  form  a  muzzle 
more  or  less  gibbous.  The  vertical  fins  are  frequently  somewhat 
scaly. 

Some  of  the  Scienoides  have  two  dorsals,  and  others  have  but 
one;  among  the  former  we  first  find  the  genus,  '' 

SciiBNA. 

Whose  common  characters  consist  of  a  gibbous  head,  supported  by  caver 
nous  bones,  two  dorsals,  or  one  deeply  emarginate,  whose  soft  part  is 
much  longer  than  the  spinous;  a  short  anal,  a  dentated  preoperculum,  an 
operculum  terminating  in  points,  and  seven  branchial  rays.  If  it  were  not  for 
the  absence  of  the  palatine  teeth,  these  fishes  would  resemble  the  Perches. 
Naturalists  divide  it  into  various  subgenera.  Some  of  the  species,  such 
as  the  King-fish  (an  Dmbrina)  inhabit  the  American  seas. 

The  Scienoides,  with  a  single  dorsal,  are  subdivided  according  to 
the  number  of  their  branchial  rays. 


206  PISCES. 

These  divisions  are  Hasmulon,  Pristoma,  and  Diagramma. 

The  Scienoides  with  a  single  dorsal  and  less  than  seven  branchial 
rays,  are  still  more  subdivided:  in  some  of  them  the  lateral  line  ex- 
tends to  the  caudal;  in  others  it  is  interrupted. 

Those  Scienoides  which  have  less  than  seven  branchial  rays  and 
an  interrupted  lateral  line,  form  several  genera  of  small  oval  fishes, 
prettily  coloured,  which  may  be  distinguished  by  the  armature  of 
their  head.  They  are  manifestly  related  to  the  genus  Chaetodon, 
and  resemble,  externally,  several  of  our  fishes  with  labyrinthian 
branchiae. 

The  genera  are  Amphiprion,  Premnas,  Pomacentrus,  &c. 

FAMILY  IV. 

SPAROIDES. 

The  Sparoides,  like  the  Scienoides,  have  a  palate  destitute  of 
teeth.  Their  general  figure  and  several  details  of  their  organization 
are  the  same;  they  are  also  covered  with  scales  more  or  less  large, 
but  they  have  none  on  the  fins.  Their  muzzle  is  not  gibbous,  nor  are 
the  bones  of  their  head  cavernous;  there  are  neither  indentations  in 
their  preoperculum,  nor  spines  on  their  operculum.  They  never 
have  more  than  six  rays  in  the  branchiae.  They  are  divided  accord- 
ing to  the  form  of  their  teeth. 

In  the  first  tribe,  that  of  Sparxjs,  Cuv.  the  sides  of  the  jaws  are 
furnished  with  round  molars  like  paving-stones;  we  subdivide  it  into 

Sargus,  Pagrus,  Chrysophris,  and  Pagelus,  differing  in  certain  dental  pecu- 
liarities. The  celebrated  Sheephead  of  the  Philadelphia  market  belongs  to 
the  first  named  genus. 

In  the  second  tribe  there  is  but  one  genus, 

Dentex,  Cuv. 
Characterized  by  conical  teeth  even  on  the  sides  of  the  jaws,  generally  in 
one  range,  some  of  the  anterior  of  which  are  drawn  out  into  large  hooks. 
They  would  be  rather  closely  allied  to  the  genus  Haemulon,  were  it  not  that 
the  indentation  of  the  preoperculum  is  wanting,  and  that  they  have  one  ray 
less  in  their  branchise.  The  cheek  is  scaly.  Two  species  are  found  in  the 
Mediterranean. 


ACANTHOPTERYGII.  207 

A  third  tribe  is  also  composed  of  a  single  genus, 

Cantharus,  Cuv. 
Teeth  short  and  crowded,  or  bent  and  crowded  all  round  the  jaws:  those 
of  the  external  row  being  the  strongest;  body  elevated  and  thick;   muzzle 
short;  jaws  not  protractile.    Two  species  are  found  in  the  Atlantic  and 
Mediterranean. 

In  a  fourth  tribe  the  teeth  are  trenchant.  It  comprises  two  genera, 
Boops  and  Oblada. 

FAMILY  V. 

MENIDES. 

The  Menides  differ  from  the  preceding  families  in  the  extreme  ex- 
tensibihty  and  retractility  of  their  upper  jaw,  which  is  owing  to  the 
length  of  the  intermaxillary  pedicles  which  withdraw  between  the 
orbits.  Their  body  is  scaly,  as  in  Sparus,  in  which  genus  they  have 
hitherto  been  placed. 

There  are  four  genera:  viz.  Mxna,  Smans,  Csesio  and  Gerres. 

FAMILY  VI. 

SQUAMIPENNES. 

So  called,  because  the  soft,  and  frequently  the  spinous  parts  of 
their  dorsal  and  anal  fins  are  covered  with  scales,  which  encrust 
them,  as  it  were,  and  render  it  difficult  to  distinguish  them  from  the 
mass  of  the  body.  This  is  the  most  remarkable  character  of  these 
fishes,  the  body  of  which  is  generally  much  compressed,  and  the  in- 
testines long.     They  were  comprised  by  Linnseus  in  the  genus 

CHiETODON. 
So  named  from  their  teeth,  which  in  length  and  tenuity  resemble  hairs,  col- 
lected in  several  close  rows  like  a  brush.  Their  mouth  is  small;  their  dorsal 
and  anal  fins  are  so  completely  covered  with  scales  similar  to  those  on  the 
back,  that  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  ascertain  where  they  commence.  These 
fishes  are  very  abundant  in  the  seas  of  hot  climates,  and  are  adorned  with 
the  most  beautifiil  colours,  circumstances  which  have  caused  many  to  be 


208  PISCES. 

figured,  and  rendered  them  common  in  our  cabinets.  They  frequent  rocky 
shores,  and  are  eaten. 

This  genus  is  now  divided  into  various  subgenera,  the  most  remai-kable  of 
which  is 

Chelmon,  Cuv. 
Separated  from  Chsetodon  on  account  of  the  extraordinary  form  of  the  snout, 
which  is  long  and  slender,  only  open  at  the  extremity,  and  formed  by  a  most 
excessive  prolongation  of  the  intermaxillary  and  lower  jaw.     Their  teeth 
are  very  fine  and  crowded,  rather  than  like  hairs. 

One  species,  Chset.  rostratus,  L. ,  has  the  faculty  of  spurting  drops  of  water 
on  the  insects  it  perceives  on  the  shore,  and  thus  bringing  them  witliin 
reach.     It  is  a  common  pastime  of  the  Chinese  at  Java. 

The  following  genera,  which  we  place  next  to  Chpstodon  on  ac- 
count of  their  scaly  fins,  differ  greatly  from  it,  however,  in  the  teeth 
with  which  their  palatines  and  vomer  are  furnished.     The  genus 

Bkama,  BI.  Schn. 
Is  connected  with  this  family  by  the  scales  covering  the  vertical  fins,  which 
have  but  a  small  number  of  spinous  rays  concealed  in  their  anterior  edges; 
but  they  have  slender,  bent  teeth  in  the  jaws  and  palatines,  an  elevated 
profile,  very  short  snout,  a  forehead  descending  vertically,  and  a  mouth, 
when  shut,  that  is  almost  vertical;  the  scales  extend  on  to  the  maxillaries; 
there  are  seven  rays  in  the  branchise;  a  dorsal  and  low  anal,  but  commencing 
in  a  salient  point. 

But  one  species  is  known,  Sparus  Rail,  Bl.,  it  inhabits  the  Mediterranean, 
and  sometimes  strays  into  the  ocean;  an  excellent  fish,  of  a  burnished  steel 
colour,  which  attains  a  large  size,  but  is  infested  with  various  species  of  in- 
testinal worms. 

Pempheris,  Cuv. 
A  long  and  scaly  anal,  the  dorsal  short  and  elevated;  head  obtuse;  the  eye 
large;  a  small  spine  on  the  operculum;  small  crowded  teeth  on  the  jaws, 
vomer  and  palatines.     From  the  Indian  Ocean. 

ToxoTEs,  Cuv. 

The  body  short  and  compressed,  the  dorsal  placed  on  the  last  half  of  the 
body,  with  very  stout  spines,  the  soft  part,  as  well  as  that  of  the  anal  which 
corresponds  to  it,  scaly;  the  snout  depressed,  short;  lower  jaw  projecting 
beyond  the  upper  one;  the  smaU  crowded  teeth  very  short  in  both  jaws, 
the  extremity  of  the  vomer,  palatines,  pterygoids,  and  on  the  tongue;  six 
rays  in  the  branchiae,  inferior  edge  of  the  infra-orbital  and  preoperculunv, 
ftnely  serrate. 


ACANTHOPTERYGII.  209 

The  species  known,  Toxotes  jaculator,  Cuv.,  is  celebrated  for  the  same 
faculty  that  distinguishes  the  Chxt.  rostratus.  By  spurting  drops  of  water 
on  Insects  which  frequent  aquatic  plants,  they  are  beaten  down  and  brought 
within  its  reach.  It  can  force  tlie  water  to  a  height  of  three  or  four  feet, 
and  rarely  misses  its  aun. 


FAMILY  VII. 
SCOMBEROIDES. 

Our  seventh  family  is  composed  of  a  multitude  of  fishes  with  small 
scales,  a  smooth  body,  and  whose  tail  and  caudal  fin  in  particular 
are  extremely  powerful. 

This  family  is  of  the  greatest  utility  to  man,  by  the  size  and  fla- 
vour of  its  species,  and  their  inexhaustible  reproduction,  which  brings 
them  periodically  into  the  same  latitudes,  where  they  constitute  the 
object  of  the  most  extensive  fisheries. 

Scomber,  Lin. 
The  first  dorsal  entire,  while  on  the  contrary,  the  last  rays  of  the  second,  as 
well  as  those  of  the  anal  which  correspond  to  them,  are  detached,  forming 
what  are  termed  false  or  spmrious  fins,  ov  pinnx  spuriae.     The  genus  is  sub- 
divided as  follows: 

ScoMBEK,  Cuv. 

The  Mackerels  have  a  fusiform  body  covered  with  uniformly  small  and 
smooth  scales;  two  little  cutaneous  crests  on  the  sides  of  the  tail;  an  empty 
space  between  the  first  and  second  dorsal. 

Sc.  scombrus,  L.  (The  Common  Mackerel.)  Blue  back,  vai'ied  with 
black,  undulating  streaks;  five  false  fins  above  and  beneath. 

Thtnnus,  Cuv. 

A  soft  corslet  round  the  thorax,  formed  by  scales  larger  and  smoother  than 
those  on  the  rest  of  the  body;  a  cartilaginous  carina  between  the  two  little 
crests  on  the  sides  of  the  tail;  the  first  dorsal  extends  close  to  the  second. 

Sc.  thynnus,  L.  (The  Tunny. )  This  fish  has  been  taken  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, from  a  very  ancient  date,  and  by  its  abundance  constitutes  a  great 
source  of  wealth  to  Provence,  Sardinia,  Sicily,  &c.  It  is  said  to  attain  the 
length  of  fifteen  and  eighteen  feet,  and  has  nine  spurious  fins  above,  and 
as  many  beneath;  the  pectorals  are  one-fifth  of  its  whole  length.  There  are 
some  other  subgenera. 
2  B 


210  PISCES. 

XiPHiAS,  Lin. 
These  fishes  belong  to  the  family  of  the  Scomberoides,  and  approach  the 
Tunnies  particularly,  in  their  excessively  small  scales,  in  the  carinx  on  the 
sides  of  their  tail,  in  the  power  of  their  caudal  fin,  and  in  their  whole  internal 
organization.  Their  distinguishing  character  consists  in  the  beak,  (whence 
theh*  name  of  Sword-fish,)  or  ensiform  point  or  tusk,  which  terminates  their 
upper  jaw;  a  powerful  weapon,  with  which  they  attack  the  largest  sea  ani- 
mals. This  beak  is  chiefly  composed  of  the  vomer  and  intermaxillaries, 
being  strengthened  at  its  base  by  the  sethmoid,  frontals,  and  maxillaries. 
Their  branchise  are  not  pectinated;  each  of  them  being  formed  of  two  large 
parallel  laminae,  the  surface  of  which  is  reticulated.  They  swim  with  aston- 
ishing swiftness,  and  their  flesh  is  excellent. 

Xiphias  gladius,  L.  (The  Sword-Fish. )  The  point  horizontally  flattened 
and  trenchant  like  the  broad  blade  of  a  sword;  sides  of  the  tail  strongly  cari- 
nated.  It  has  but  one  dorsal,  wliich  rises  from  before  and  fi-om  behind;  the 
middle  of  it  becoming  worn  with  age  gives  it  the  appearance  of  being  double. 
It  is  one  of  the  largest  and  best  fishes  of  the  European  seas,  frequently  at- 
taining the  length  of  fifteen  feet.  It  is  more  common  in  the  Mediterranean 
than  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  A  parasitic  crustaceous  animal  penetrates  into 
its  flesh  and  sometimes  renders  it  so  furious  that  it  dashes  itself  on  shore. 

Centeonotus,  Lacep. 
A  genus  of  Scomberoides  characterized  by  the  spines,  which,  in  the  Acan- 
thopterygii  in  general,  form  the  anterior  portion  of  the  dorsal,  or  a  first 
separate  dorsal,  but  in  them  are  free  and  unconnected  by  a  common  mem- 
brane; they  all  have  ventrals.     They  are  subdivided  into  four  subgenera.   In 

Natjckates,  Rafin. 

The  dorsal  spines  are  free;  body  fusiform;  a  carina  in  the  sides  of  the  tail 
as  in  the  Tunny,  and  two  free  spines  before  the  anal  fin. 

The  common  species  is  blue  with  broad  vertical  bands  of  a  much  deeper 
blue.  The  vulgar  name  of  Pilot-fish  owes  its  origin  to  the  fact,  that  it  follows 
vessels  to  seize  upon  what  may  fall  from  them;  and  as  a  similar  habit  is  ob- 
served in  the  Shark,  it  has  been  said  that  the  former  acts  as  a  guide  or  pilot 
to  the  latter;  it  is  not  above  a  foot  long. 

There  are  various  other  genera  belonging  to  this  family,  such  as  Rhyn- 
chobdella,  Notacanthus,  Seriola,  Nomeus,  Caranx,  Vomer,  Zeus  (The  Com- 
mon Dory),  &c.  &c. 


ACANTHOPTERYGII.  211 

FAMILY  VIII. 

T^NIOIDES.(l) 

This  family  is  closely  connected  with  the  Scomberoides,  and  its 
first  genus  is  even  intimately  allied  with  Gempilus  and  Thyrsites;  the 
fishes  which  compose  it  are  elongated,  flattened  on  the  sides,  and 
have  very  small  scales. 

In  the  first  tribe  we  find  the  muzzle  elongated,  the  mouth  cleft  and 
armed  with  strong,  pointed  and  trenchant  teeth,  and  the  lower  jaw 
advancing  beyond  the  upper  one:  it  comprises  but  two  genera, 

Lepidopus,  Gouan. 

Whose  special  character  consists  in  the  reduction  of  the  ventrals  to  small 
scaly  plates.  The  thin  and  elongated  body  is  furnished  with  a  dorsal  above, 
which  extends  throughout  itsleng-th,  with  a  low  anal  beneath,  and  terminates 
in  a  well  formed  caudal;  there  are  eight  rays  in  the  branchiae. 

Teichiukus,  Lin. 
The  same  form  of  body,  muzzle,  and  jaws,  as  in  Lepidopus;  similar  pointed 
and  trenchant  teetli,  and  a  dorsal  extending  along  the  back,  but  the  ventrals 
and  caudal  are  wanting,  and  the  tail  is  drawn  out  into  a  long,  slender,  and 
compressed  filament.  In  lieu  of  the  anal  there  is  merely  a  suite  of  small 
and  hardly  perceptible  spines  on  the  under  edge  of  the  tail;  the  branchiae 
have  but  seven  rays.    They  resemble  beautiful  sUver  ribands. 

A  second  tribe  comprehends  genera  in  which  the  mouth  is  small, 
and  but  slightly  cleft. 

Gymnetrus,  B1. 
The  body  elongated  and  flat,  as  in  all  the  preceding  divisions,  and  totally 
deprived  of  the  anal  fin;  but  there  is  along  dorsal  whose  lengthened  anterior 
rays  form  a  sort  of  panache,  but  they  are  easily  broken;  the  ventrals,  when 
not  worn  or  broken,  are  very  long,  and  the  caudal,  composed  of  very  few 
rays,  rises  vertically  from  the  extremity  of  the  tail,  which  ends  in  a  small 
hook. 

The  Arctic  ocean  produces  two  species,  called  in  Norway  the  King  of 
the  Herrings;  one  of  which  is  said  by  some  to  have  one  hundred  and  twenty 
rays,  and  by  others  one  hundred  and  sixty,  and  to  attain  the  length  of  ten 
feet;  the  other  has  more  than  four  hundred  rays,  and  is  eighteen  feet  in 


(1)  Riband-like. 


212  PISCES. 

length.     The  ventrals  consist  of  a  long  filament  dilated  near  the  extremity. 
They  are  also  found  in  India. 

Stylephorus,  Shaw. 
A  vertical  caudal,  as  in  Gymnetrus,  but  shorter;  the  extremity  of  the  tail, 
instead  of  being  curved  into  a  small  hook,  is  prolonged  into  a  slender  cord 
longer  than  the  body.     But  one  specimen  is  known. 

In  a  third  tribe  the  snout  is  short,  and  the  mouth  cleft  obliquely. 

Cepola,  Lin. 
A  long  dorsal  and  anal,  both  reaching  to  the  base  of  the  caudal,  which  is 
tolerably  large;  no  rise  in  the  cranium;  snout  short;  lower  jaw  curved  up- 
wards; the  teeth  prominent,  and  the  ventrals  suflSciently  developed. 

LoPHOTES,  Giorna. 
A  short  head,  surmounted  with  a  high  osseous  crest;  to  whose  summit  a  long 
and  stout  spine  is  articulated,  bordered  behind  with  a  membrane  and  a  low 
fin,  whose  rays  are  nearly  all  simple,  extending  from  this  spine  to  the  point 
of  the  tail,  which  has  a  distinct,  but  very  small  caudal. 


FAMILY  IX. 

TPIEUTYES. 

Our  ninth  family  is  as  closely  allied  to  the  Scomberoides  as  the 
preceding  one,  but  in  other  points,  such  as  the  armature,  which  is 
found  in  several  genera  on  the  sides  of  the  tail,  or  in  others,  the 
horizontal  spine  before  the  dorsal,  &.c.  It  contains  but  very  few 
genera;  they  all  have  a  compressed,  oblong  body,  a  small  mouth, 
but  slightly  or  not  at  all  protractile,  each  jaw  of  which  is  armed  with 
a  single  range  of  trenchant  teeth;  palate  and  tongue  without  teeth, 
and  a  single  dorsal.  They  are  herbivorous,  feeding  on  fucus  and 
other  marine  plants. 

SiGANUS,  Forsk. 
These  fishes  have  a  remarkable  character — unique,  in  icthyology — in  their 
ventrals,  which  are  furnished  with  two  spinous  rays,  one  external,  the  other 
internal;  the  three  intermediate  ones  branching  as  usual.  Tliey  have  five 
branchial  rays,  and  a  horizontal  spine  before  the  dorsal.  The  styloid  bones 
of  their  shoulder  curve  as  they  lengthen,  so  as  to  unite  at  their  extremities 
with  the  first  interspinal  of  the  anal.  Numerous  species  are  found  in  the 
Indian  Ocean. 


ACANTHOPTERYGII.  213 

Tlie  remaining  g-enera  are  Acanthurus,  (Surgeons)   Prionurus,  Naaeus, 
AxinuruSy  and  Priodon. 


FAMILY  X. 

This  family  is  distinguished  by 

LABYRINTHIFORM  PHARYNGEALS. 

By  this  we  mean,  that  part  of  the  superior  pharyngeals  of  these  fishes 
are  divided  into  small  irregular  lamellae,  more  or  less  numerous, 
intercepting  cells  containing  water,  which  thus  flows  upon  and  hu- 
mects the  branchiae,  while  the  animal  is  removed  from  its  proper 
element.  By  this  it  is  enabled  to  quit  the  rivulet  or  pool,  which 
constitutes  its  usual  abode,  and  crawl  to  a  considerable  distance 
from  it,  a  singular  faculty,  not  unknown  to  the  ancients,  and  which 
induces  the  people  of  India  to  believe  that  they  fall  from  heaven. 
The  two  most  remarkable  genera  of  this  family  are  the  following. 

Anabas,  Cuv. 

It  is  in  this  genus  that  we  find  the  greatest  degree  of  complication  in  these 
labyrinths;  the  third  pharyngeals,  however,  have  teeth  arranged  like  paving 
stones,  and  there  are  others  behind  the  cranium.  Theii-body  is  round  and 
covered  with  strong  scales,  their  head  broad,  muzzle  short  and  obtuse,  and 
mouth  small;  the  lateral  line  is  interrupted  at  its  posterior  third. 

An.  testudineus,  Cuv.,  called  the  Pa7iein  or  Tree-Climber;  highly  celebrat- 
ed, because  it  not  only  leaves  the  water,  but,  according  to  Daldorf,  even 
cUmbs  up  the  shrubs  on  its  banks;  this  latter  assertion,  however,  is  denied. 
Found  throughout  all  India,  and  the  only  species  known.     The 

Ophicephaltjs,  B1. 

Resembles  the  preceding  genus  in  most  of  its  characters,  and  particularly 
in  the  cellular  conformation  of  the  pharyngeals,  which  are  adapted  to  retain 
water.  These  fishes  also  creep  to  a  considerable  distance  from  their  liquid 
abodes,  but  what  particularly  distinguishes,  and  even  separates,  them  from 
all  other  Acanthopterygii,  is  the  absence  of  spines  in  the  fins,  the  first  ray 
of  their  ventrals  at  most  excepted,  and  even  that,  though  simple,  is  not 
sharp  and  stiff.  The  jugglers  of  India  exhibit  this  fish  out  of  water,  and 
even  the  children  amuse  themselves  by  forcing  it  to  crawl  upon  the  ground. 
In  the  markets  of  China  the  larger  species  are  cut  up  alive  for  distribution. 
They  may  be  divided  by  the  number  of  their  dorsal  rays. 


214  PISCES. 

FAMILY  XL 

MUGILOIDES. 

Our  eleventh  family  of  the  Acanthopterygii  is  composed  of  the 
genus 

MuGiL,  Lin. 
These  fishes  present  so  many  peculiarities  in  their  organization,  that  they 
may  be  considered  as  forming-  a  distinct  family;  their  body  is  almost  cylin- 
drical, covered  with  large  scales,  and  furnished  with  two  separate  dorsals, 
the  first  of  which  has  but  four  spinous  rays;  the  ventrals  are  inserted  a  little 
behind  the  pectorals.  There  are  six  rays  in  the  branchiae;  their  head  is 
somewhat  depressed,  and  covered  with  large  scales  or  polygonal  plates, 
their  muzzle  very  short.  Their  transverse  mouth,  in  consequence  of  a  pro- 
minence in  the  middle  of  the  lower  jaw,  which  corresponds  with  a  depress- 
ion in  the  upper  one,  forms  an  angle,  the  teeth  being  excessively  tenuous, 
and  frequently  almost  imperceptible. 

They  resort  to  the  mouths  of  rivers  in  large  troops,  and  are  continually 
leaping  out  of  the  water;  the  European  seas  produce  several  species  hitherto 
very  imperfectly  ascertained;  their  flesh  is  esteemed. 

M.  cephalus,  Cuv.  (The  Common  Mullet. )  Distinguished  from  all  the 
other  species  of  Europe  by  its  eyes,  which  are  half  covered  by  two  adipose 
veils,  adhering  to  the  anterior  and  poster-ior  edge  of  the  orbit. 

There  are  two  other  genera,  Tetragonurus  and  Atherina,  (the  Aphyes 
of  the  ancients). 

FAMILY  XII. 

GOBIOIDES. 

The  Gobioides  are  known  by  the  length  and  tenuity  of  the  dorsal 
spines. 

Blennius,  Lin. 

Bknnies  have  a  strongly  marked  character  in  the  ventral  fins,  which  are 
placed  before  the  pectorals  and  consist  of  only  two  rays.  The  body  is 
elongated  and  compressed,  and  has  but  a  single  dorsal  almost  entirely  com- 
posed of  simple  but  flexible  rays.  They  live  in  small  troops  among  the 
rocks  on  the  coast,  leaping  and  playing,  and  are  capable  of  living  witliout 
water  for  some  time.  A  slimy  mucus  is  smeared  over  their  skin,  to  which 
they  owe  their  Greek  name  of  Blennius.  They  are  now  distributed  in  va- 
rious subgenera,  such  as  Myxodes,  Salarias,  CUnus,  &c. 


ACANTHOPTERYGII.  215 

Anarrhichas,  Lin.(l) 
So  very  similar  are  these  fishes  to  the  Blenny,  that  I  would  willingly  name 
them  Blennies  without  ventrab. 

A.  lupus,  "L.  (The  Sea- Wolf)  is  the  most  common  species;  it  inhabits 
northern  seas,  and  is  frequently  seen  on  the  coast  of  Europe;  six  or  seven 
feet  long;  brown,  with  clouded  bands  of  deep  brown;  the  flesh  resembling 
that  of  an  Eel.  This  fish  is  valuable  to  the  Icelanders,  who  salt  and  dry  the 
flesh  for  food,  employ  the  skin  as  shagreen,  and  the  gall  as  soap.     The 

GoBius,  Lin. 

Commonly  called  Gobies  or  Sea-Gudgeons,  are  instantly  recognized  by  the 
union  of  their  thoracic  ventrals,  either  along  the  whole  of  their  length,  or 
at  least  at  their  base,  forming  a  single  hollow  disk  more  or  less  infundibuli- 
form.  The  spines  of  the  dorsal  are  flexible,  the  branchial  apertures  provi- 
ded with  five  rays  only,  and  generally  but  slightly  open.  They  are  small 
or  moderate  sized  fishes,  which  live  among  the  rocks  near  the  shore.  They 
prefer  a  clayey  bottom,  where  they  excavate  canals  in  which  they  pass  the 
winter.  In  the  spring  they  prepare  a  nest  in  some  spot  abounding  with 
fucus,  which  they  afterwards  cover  with  roots  of  the  Zostera;  here  the  male 
remains  shut  up,  and  awaits  the  females,  who  successively  arrive  to  deposit 
their  eggs;  he  exhibits  much  care  and  courage  in  defending  and  preserving 
them.     This  genus  also  is  variously  subdivided. 

Callionymus,  Lin. 
Fishes  of  this  genus  have  two  strongly  marked  characters,  one  in  their  bran- 
chiae, which  have  but  a  single  aperture,  consisting  of  a  hole  on  each  side  of 
the  nape,  and  another  in  their  ventrals,  which  are  placed  under  the  throat, 
are  separate,  and  larger  than  the  pectorals.  Their  head  is  oblong  and  de- 
pressed, their  eyes  approximated  and  directed  upwards,  their  intermaxilla- 
ries  protractile,  and  their  preopercula  elongated  behind  and  terminating  in 
some  spines.  Their  teeth  are  small  and  crowded,  but  there  are  none  in  the 
palate.  They  are  pretty  fishes  with  a  smooth  skin,  whose  anterior  dorsal,, 
supported  by  a  few  setaceous  rays,  is  sometimes  very  elevated.  The  second 
dorsal  is  elongated  as  well  as  the  anal. 

It  is  with  some  hesitation  that  I  close  this  family  with  a  genus 
which  will  one  day  probably  form  the  type  of  a  separate  family;  I 
mean  the 

Chirus,  Stell. 
Fishes  with  a  tolerably  long  body,  furnished  with  ciliated  scales;  a  small 


(1)  Anarrhichas,  Climber,  a  name  invented  by  Gesner  because  this  fish  is 
said  to  climb  upon  rocks  and  shoals  by  the  aid  of  its  fins  and  tail. 


216  PISCES. 

unarmed  head;  slightly  cleft  mouth,  provided  with  small,  unequal,  conical 
teeth;  the  spines  of  whose  dorsal  are  almost  always  very  delicate,  the  fin 
itself  extending-  the  whole  length  of  the  back.  Their  distinguishing  char- 
acter consists  in  several  series  of  pores,  similar  to  the  lateral  Hne,  or,  as  it 
were,  in  several  lateral  lines.  They  frequently  have  an  appendage  on  the 
eye-brow,  as  is  the  case  with  certain  Blennies,  but  their  ventrals  consist  of 
five  soft  rays,  as  usual.  The  species  known  are  from  the  sea  of  Kamschatka. 


FAMILY  XIII. 

PECTORALES  PEDICULATI. 

This  family  consists  of  certain  Acanthopterygii  whose  carpal 
bones  are  elongated  so  as  io  form  a  sort  of  arm,  which  supports 
their  pectorals.  It  comprises  two  genera,  which  are  closely  ap- 
proximatedj  although  authors  have  generally  placed  them  at  a  dis- 
tance from  each  other,  and  which  are  closely  allied  to  the  Gobioides. 

LopHius,  Lin.(l) 

The  general  character  of  this  genus,  independently  of  the  semi-cartilaginous 
skeleton  and  the  naked  skin,  consists  in  the  pectorals  being  supported  by 
two  arms,  as  it  were,  each  of  which  is  formed  of  two  bones  that  have  been 
compared  to  the  radius  and  ulna,  but  which  in  reality  belong  to  the  carpus, 
and  which  In  this  genus  are  longer  than  in  any  other;  in  the  ventrals  being 
placed  very  far  before  these  pectorals;  in  opercula  and  branchiostegous  rays 
enveloped  in  the  skin,  and,  finally,  in  the  only  opening  of  the  giUs  being  a 
hole  situated  behind  the  said  pectorals.  They  are  voracious  fishes,,  which 
survive  a  long  time  out  of  water,  on  account  of  the  smallness  of  their  bran- 
chial apertures. 

L.  piscatorius,  L. ;  Sea-Devil;  Galanga,  &c.  (The  Angler. )  A  large  fish, 
of  from  four  to  five  feet  in  length,  inhabiting  the  seas  of  Europe,  whose 
hideous  figure  has  rendered  it  celebrated. 

FAMILY  XIV. 

LABROIDES. 

This  family  is  easily  recognized;  the  body  is  oblong  and  scaly;  a 
single  dorsal  is  supported  in  front  by  spines,  each  of  which  is  gene- 

(1)  Lophius,  a  name  made  by  Artedi,  from  \o<pia.  (pinna),  on  account  of 
the  crests  of  their  head.  The  ancients  called  them  ^tf.i^a.xo^,  and  Rana,  or 
Frog. 


ACANTHOPTERYGII.  217 

rally  furnished  with  a  membranous  appendage;  the  jaws  are  covered 
with  fleshy  lips;  there  are  three  pharyngeals,  two  upper  ones  attached 
to  the  cranium,  and  a  large  lower  one,  all  three  armed  with  teeth, 
now  resembljng  a  pavement  and  then  pointed  or  laminiform,  but 
generally  stronger  than  usual. 

Labrus,  Lin. 
A  very  numerous  genus  of  fishes  which  strongly  resemble  each  other  in 
their  oblong  form;  their  double  fleshy  lips,  from  which, they  derive  their 
name,  one  adliering  immediately  to  the  jaws  and  the  other  to  the  suborbi- 
tals; their  crowded  branchiae  with  five  rays;  their  conical  maxillary  teeth, 
the  middle  and  anterior  of  which  are  the  longest,  and  their  cylindrical  and 
blunt  pharyngeal  teeth  arranged  like  a  pavement,  the  upper  ones  on  two 
large  plates,  the  lower  on  a  single  one  which  corresponds  to  the  two  others. 
Our  Blackfish  or  Tautog  is  a  true  Labrus.  This  genus  is  divided  into  nine 
subgenera,  differing  in  the  teeth,  mouth,  &c.  &,c  The  most  remarkable 
is  the 

Ebibuxtjs,  Cuv. 

Remarkable  for  the  excessive  protractility  of  their  mouth,  which  by  a 
see-saw  motion  of  their  maxillaries,  and  the  sliding  forwards  of  their  inter- 
maxillaries,  instantly  becomes  a  kind  of  tube.  They  employ  this  artifice  to 
capture  the  small  fry  which  pass  within  reach  of  this  singular  instrument. 

But  a  single  species  is  known;  Spams  insidiator,  Pal.,  of  a  reddish  co- 
lour.   From  the  Indian  Ocean. 

Chromis,  Cuv. 
The  lips,  protractile  intermaxillaries,  pharyngeals,  dorsal  filaments,  and 
port  of  a  Labrus;  but  the  teeth  of  the  pharynx  and  jaws  resemble  those  of 
a  card,  and  there  is  a  range  of  conical  ones  in  front.  The  vertical  fins  are 
filamentous,  those  of  the  belly  being  even  frequently  extended  into  long 
threads;  the  lateral  line  is  interrupted. 

C.  vulgaris.  The  common  or  black  Coracinus  of  the  ancients.  A  small 
chesnut-brown  fish,  taken  by  thousands  in  the  Mediterranean. 

ScARUs,  Lin. 
A  genus  of  fishes  with  remarkable  jaws  (that  is,  their  intermaxillary  and 
premandibular  bones),  whichare  convex,  rounded,  and  furnished  with  teeth, 
arranged  like  scales  upon  then-  edge,  and  upon  their  anterior  surface;  these 
teeth  succeed  each  other  from  behind,  forwards,  so  that  those  of  the  base 
are  the  newest,  and  in  time  form  a  row  on  the  edge.  They  have  the  ob- 
long form  of  a  Labrus,  large  scales,  and  an  interrupted  lateral  line;  they 
have  three  pharyngeal  plates,  two  above  and  one  below,  furnished  with 
teeth  as  in  a  Labrus;  but  these  teeth  are  transverse  blades,  and  not  like 
rounded  paving  stones. 
2  C 


218  PISCES. 

A  species  blue  or  red,  according  to  the  season,  is  found  in  the  Archipe- 
lago, which  is  the  Scams  creticus,  Aldrov.  and  which  late  researches  have 
convinced  me  is  the  Scarus,  so  highly  celebrated  among  the  ancients;  the 
same  that  Elipertius  Optatus,  commander  of  a  Roman  fleet,  during  the  reign 
of  Claudius,  went  to  Greece  in  search  of,  for  the  purpose  of  distributing  it 
through  the  sea  of  Italy.  It  is  an  article  of  food  in  Greece  at  the  pre- 
sent day. 

Numerous  species  are  found  in  the  seas  of  hot  climates.  The  form  of  their 
jaws  and  the  splendour  of  their  colours  have  caused  them  to  receive  the 
vulgar  appellation  of  Parrot-fishes. 


FAMILY  XV. 

FISTULARIDiE. 

The  fishes  of  this  family  are  characterized  by  a  long  tube,  in  the 
fore-part  of  the  cranium,  formed  by  the  prolongation  of  the  aeth- 
moid,  vomer,  preopercula,  interopercula,  pterygoidals  and  tympa- 
nals, and  at  the  extremity  of  which  is  the  mouth,  composed  as  usual 
of  the  intermaxillaries,  maxillaries,  and  the  palatine  and  mandibu- 
lary  bones. 

Some  of  them,  the  Fistulariae,  have  a  cylindrical  body,  in  others, 
the  Centrisci,  it  is  oval  and  compressed. 

FisTULARiA,  Lin. 

The  name  of  these  fishes,  in  particular,  is  derived  from  the  tube  common  to 
the  whole  family.  The  jaws  are  at  its  extremity,  slightly  cleft  in  a  nearly 
horizontal  direction.  This  head,  thus  elongated,  constitutes  the  third  or 
fourth  of  the  total  length  of  the  body,  which  is  itself  long  and  thin.  There 
are  six  or  seven  rays  in  the  branchix,  and  some  bony  appendages  extend 
behind  the  head,  upon  the  anterior  part  of  the  body,  which  they  strengthen 
more  or  less.     The  dorsal  is  opposite  to  the  anal. 

Centriscus,  Lin. 

In  addition  to  the  tubular  snout  of  the  family,  the  fishes  of  this  genus  have 
an  oval  or  oblong  (not  elongated)  body,  compressed  on  the  side,  and  tren- 
chant beneath;  branchia  composed  of  but  two  or  three  slender  rays;  a  first 
spinal  dorsal  and  small  ventrals  behind  the  pectorals.  The  mouth  is  very 
small,  and  cleft  obliquely. 

The  second  division  of  common  fishes,  or  that  of  the  Malacop- 
terygii,  contains  three  orders,  characterized  by  the  position  of  the 
ventrals  or  by  their  absence. 


PISCES.  219 

ORDER  II. 

MALACOPTERYGII  ABDOMINALES(l). 

In  this  order  the  ventrals  are  suspended  to  the  under  part  of  the 
abdomen  and  behind  the  pectorals,  without  being  attached  to  the 
bones  of  the  shoulder.  It  is  the  most  numerous  of  the  three,  and 
comprehends  most  of  the  fresh-water  fishes.  We  subdivide  it  into 
five  families. 

FAMILY  I. 

CIPRINID^. 

The  Ciprinidae  are  recognized  by  the  slightly  cleft  mouth;  the 
weak  jaws,  generally  edentated,  and  whose  border  is  formed  by  the 
intermaxillaries;  by  the  deeply  dentated  pharyngeals  which  compose 
the  trifling  armature  of  the  jaws,  and  by  the  smaller  number  of  the 
branchial  rays.  Their  body  is  scaly,  and  they  have  no  adipose  dor- 
sal, such  as  we  shall  find  in  the  Siluri  and  in  the  Salmons.  Their  sto- 
mach has  no  cul-de-sac,  neither  are  there  any  caecal  appendages  to 
their  pylorus.     Of  all  the  fishes  they  are  the  least  carnivorous. 

Cyprinus,  Lin. 
A  very  numerous  and  natural  genus,  easily  distinguished  by  the  small  mouth, 
edentated  jaws,  and  the  three  flat  rays  of  the  branchiae.  The  tongue  is 
smooth;  the  palate  provided  with  a  thick,  soft,  and  singularly  irritable  sub- 
stance commonly  termed  a  "  carp's  tongue."  The  pharynx  presents  a 
powerful  instrument  of  mastication,  consisting  of  stout  teeth  attached  to  the 
inferior  pharyngeals,  which  are  so  arranged  as  to  be  able  to  squeeze  ali- 
mentary matters  between  them,  and  of  a  stony  disk  set  in  a  wide  cavity  un- 
der a  process  of  the  sphenoid.  These  fishes  have  but  one  dorsal,  and  their 
body  is  covered  with  scales  which  most  commonly  are  very  large;  they  live 
in  fresh  water,  and  are  perhaps  the  least  carnivorous  of  the  whole  class, 
feeding  chiefly  on  seeds,  grass,  and  even  ooze. 

They  are  variously  subdivided.  To  Cyprinus  proper,  or  the  true  Carps, 
belongs  the  well  known 


(1)  Malacopterygii,  soft-finned. 


320  PISCES. 

Cyp.  auratus,  L.  (The  Golden  Carp  or  Gold  and  Silver  Fish.)  Dorsal 
and  anal  spines  dentated  as  in  the  Common  Carp.  This  fish  is  at  first 
blackish  and  by  degrees  assumes  that  splendid  golden  red  which  charac- 
terizes it;  some,  however,  are  of  a  silver  colour,  and  others  again  are  marked 
by  various  shades  of  the  three  colours.  Individuals  are  found  without  a 
dorsal,  others  have  a  very  small  one;  the  caudal  of  a  third  is  very  large  and 
is  divided  into  three  or  four  lobes;  the  eyes  of  a  fourth  are  excessively  dis- 
tended; all  these  accidental  changes,  which  are  the  result  of  domestication, 
may  be  variously  combined. 

To  the  other  subdivisions  belong  the  Breams,  Gudgeons,  Tenches, 
Suckers,  &c. 

CoBiTis,  Lin. 

The  head  small,  body  elongated,  invested  with  small  scales  and  covered 
with  mucus;  ventrals  very  far  back  and  above  them  a  single  small  dorsal; 
the  mouth  at  the  extremity  of  the  snout,  but  slightly  cleft,  without  teeth, 
but  encircled  by  lips  fitted  for  sucking,  and  with  cirri;  but  three  rays  in 
the  branchise,  the  apertures  of  which  are  small;  the  inferior  pharyngeals 
strongly  dentated. 

Anableps,  B1. 
The  fishes  of  this  genus,  for  a  long  time  and  very  improperly  united  with 
the  Cobites,  possess  very  peculiar  characters;  the  cornea  and  iris  of  their 
very  prominent  eyes,  which  are  placed  under  a  roof  formed  on  each  side  by 
the  frontal,  are  divided  into  two  portions  by  transverse  bands,  so  that  the 
organ  of  sight  has  two  pupils,  and  appears  to  be  double,  although  it  has  but 
one  crystalline  and  one  vitreous  humour,  and  but  one  retina,  a  peculiarity 
of  which  there  is  no  other  example  among  vertebrated  animals. 

But  a  single  species  is  known;  the  dnabkps  tetrophtalmus,  Bl.;  it  inhabits 
the  rivers  of  Guiana. 


FAMILY  II. 

ESOCES. 

We  find  no  adipose  fin  in  this  family.  The  edge  of  the  upper 
jaw  is  formed  by  the  intermaxillary,  or  when  it  is  not  completely  so 
formed,  the  maxillary  is  edentated  and  concealed  in  the  thickness  of 
the  lips.  The  fishes  which  compose  it  are  extremely  voracious. 
With  the  exception  of  the  Microstomas,  all  those  that  are  known 
have  the  dorsal  opposite  to  the  anal.  Linnaeus  united  them  in  the 
genus 


MALACOPTERYGU  ABDOMINALES.       221 

Esox,  Lin. 
The  Pikes,  properly  so  called,  have  small  intermaxillarles  furnished  with  little 
pointed  teeth  in  the  middle  of  the  upper  jaw,  of  which  they  form  the  two- 
thirds,  those  on  the  sides  of  the  jaw  being  edentated.  The  vomer,  pala- 
tines, tongue,  pharyngeals  and  rays  of  the  branchia;,  bristled  with  teeth 
resembling  those  of  a  card;  a  series  of  long  pointed  teeth  on  the  sides  of  the 
lower  jaw. 

E.  lucius,  L.  (The  Common  Pike.)  Well  known  as  one  of  the  most 
voracious  and  destructive  of  all  fishes,  but  whose  flesh  is  highly  esteemed. 
This  species,  which  inhabits  Europe,  is  found  in  the  fresh  waters  of  North 
America,  where  two  other  species  are  also  to  be  met  with;  the  flanks  of  the 
one,  Esox  reticularis,  Lesueur,  are  marked  with  brownish  lines,  sometimes 
resembling  net-work;  the  other,  Esox  estor,  is  sprinkled  with  round  black- 
ish spots. 

This  genus  is  also  subdivided  into  several  subgenera.  The  most  remar- 
kable is  the 

BEioiirE,  Cuv. 

The  whole  edge  of  the  upper  jaw,  which  as  well  as  the  lower  one  is  ex- 
tended Into  a  long  snout,  formed  by  the  intermaxillaries, — both  furnished 
with  small  teeth,  no  others  in  the  mouth,  and  those  of  the  pharynx  en  pave. 
The  body  is  elongated  and  covered  with  scales,  which  are  not  very  appa- 
rent, one  longitudinal  carinated  range  near  the  lower  edge  excepted.  The 
bones  are  very  remarkable  for  theii"  colour,  which  is  a  beautiful  green. 

B.  vulgaris.  (The  Gar-Fish.)  Two  feet  long;  green  above,  white  be- 
neath; found  on  the  coast  of  France,  where  its  flesh  is  much  esteemed,  not- 
withstanding the  colour  of  the  bones.  Neighbouring  species  inhabit  all 
seas.  The  bite  of  one  of  them,  which  is  said  to  attain  a  length  of  eight  feet, 
is  considered  dangerous. 

ExocETUs,  Lin. 
These  well  known,  or  Flying-fishes,  as  they  are  called,  are  instantly  distin- 
guished among  the  Abdominales  by  the  excessive  size  of  their  pectorals, 
which  are  sufficiently  large  to  support  them  in  the  air  for  a  few  moments. 
Their  head  and  body  are  scaly,  and  a  longitudinal  range  of  carinated  scales 
forms  a  salient  line  on  the  lower  part  of  each  flank,  as  in  the  Hemiramphi, 
&c.  The  head  is  flattened  above  and  on  the  sides;  the  dorsal  placed  above 
the  anal;  the  eyes  large,  the  intermaxillaries  without  pedicles  and  constitu- 
ting the  whole  edge  of  the  upper  jaw;  their  two  jaws  are  furnished  with 
small  pointed  teeth,  and  their  pharyngeals  with  teeth  like  a  pavement. 

They  do  not  fly  far:  rising  in  the  air  to  avoid  their  voracious  enemies,  they 
soon  fall  into  the  sea,  their  wings  merely  acting  as  parachutes.  Birds  pur- 
sue them  through  the  air  and  Fishes  through  the  water.  They  are  found  in 
all  the  seas  of  hot  and  temperate  climates. 

E.  exilens,  Bl.     Common  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  easUy  recognized  by 


222  PISCES. 

the  length  of  its  ventrals,  placed  posterior  to  the  middle  of  the  body;  the 
fins  of  the  young  are  marked  with  black  bands. 

E.  volitans,  Bl.  Common  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  has  small  ventrals 
placed  anterior  to  the  middle  of  the  body. 

The  American  seas  produce  species  with  cirri,  wluch  are  sometimes  sim- 
ple, sometimes  double,  and  even  ramous. 

Next  to  the  family  of  the  Esoces  we  place  a  genus  of  fishes,  which, 
though  varying  but  little  from  the  former,  has  some  anatomical  dif- 
ference. It  will  most  probably  give  rise  to  a  particular  family.  It 
is  the  MormyruSf  Lin.     They  are  found  in  the  Nile. 


FAMILY  III. 

SILURIDiE. 

This  family  is  distinguished  from  all  others  of  the  order  by  the 
want  of  true  scales,  having  merely  a  naked  skin  or  large  osseous 
plates.  The  intermaxillaries,  suspended  under  the  ethmoid,  form 
the  edge  of  the  upper  jaw,  and  the  maxillaries  are  reduced  to  sim- 
ple vestiges,  or  are  extended  into  cirri.  The  first  ray  of  the  dorsal 
and  pectoral  is,  almost  always,  a  strong  articulated  spine,  and  there 
is  frequently  an  adipose  one  behind,  as  in  the  Salmon. 

SiLTJRus,  Lin. 

A  numerous  genus,  easily  recognized  by  its  nudity,  the  mouth  cleft  in  the 
extremity  of  the  snout,  and  in  the  greater  number  of  the  subgenera,  by  the 
strong  spine  which  forms  the  first  ray  of  the  pectoral.  It  is  so  articulated 
with  the  bone  of  the  shoulder  that  the  fisk  can  either  depress  it,  or  raise  it 
perpendicularly,  when  it  is  immovable,  constituting  a  dangerous  weapon, 
wounds  from  which  are  considered  as  poisoned,  an  idea  arising  from  the  fact 
that  tetanus  frequently  ensues.     They  are  usually  called  Cat-Jish. 

S.  glanis,  L.  The  largest  fresh  water  fish  found  in  Europe,  and  the  only 
one  of  this  extensive  genus  that  it  possesses;  it  is  smooth,  black,  greenish, 
spotted  with  black  above,  with  yellowish  white  beneath;  head  large;  with 
six  cirri;  it  sometimes  exceeds  six  feet  in  length,  and  weighs  three  hundred 
pounds.  It  inhabits  the  rivers  of  Germany  and  Hungary,  the  lake  of 
Haarlem,  &c.,  and  conceals  itself  in  the  mud  to  watch  for  prey.  The  flesh, 
which  is  fat,  is  employed  in  some  places  for  the  same  purposes  as  lard. 
There  are  various  subgenera. 

Malapterurus,  Lacep. 
Is  distinguished  from  Silurus,  properly  so  called,  by  the  absence  of  the  radi- 


MALACOPTERYGII  ABDOMINALES.       223 

ated  fin  on  the  back,  tliere  being  nothing  but  a  small  adipose  one  on  the 
tail,  and  by  the  total  deficiency  of  a  spine  in  the  pectorals,  whose  rays  are 
entirely  soft.  The  head  as  well  as  the  body  is  covered  with  a  smooth  skin; 
the  teeth  are  small  and  crowded,  and  arranged  in  a  broad  crescent  both 
above  and  below;  there  are  seven  rays  in  the  branchiae,  and  the  jaws  and 
viscera  resemble  those  of  a  Silurus. 

J\f-  electricus,  the  JRaasch  or  Thunder  of  the  Arabs.  The  only  species 
known;  it  has  six  cirri,  and  the  head  is  not  so  big  as  the  body,  which  is  en- 
larged forwards.  This  celebrated  fish,  like  the  Torpedo  and  Gymnotus,  has 
the  faculty  of  communicating  an  electric  shock.  The  seat  of  this  power 
seems  to  be  in  a  particular  tissue,  situated  between  the  skin  and  the  mus- 
cles, and  presenting  the  appearance  of  a  fatty  cellular  tissue  abundantly 
furnished  with  nerves.     From  the  Nile  and  the  Senegal. 

The  remaining  genera  of  this  family  are  Aspedro  and  Loricaiia. 


FAMILY  IV. 

SALMONIDES. 

The  Salmonides,  according  to  Linnaeus,  form  but  a  single  great 
genus,  clearly  characterized  by  a  scaly  body,  with  a  first  dorsal, 
whose  rays  are  all  soft,  followed  by  a  second  one  small  and  adipose, 
that  is  formed  of  skin  filled  with  fat,  and  unsupported  by  rays.  It 
comprises  fishes  with  numerous  caBca  and  a  natatory  bladder;  nearly 
all  of  them  ascend  rivers,  and  are  highly  esteemed.  They  are 
naturally  voracious.  The  structure  and  armature  of  the  jaws  are 
singularly  various. 

Salmo,  Lin. 
The  Salmon,  properly  so  called,  or  rather,  the  Trout,  has  a  great  portion 
of  the  edge  of  the  upper  jaw  formed  by  the  maxillaries;  a  range  of  point- 
ed teeth  in  the  maxillaries,  intermaxiUaries,  palatines  and  mandibulartes, 
and  a  double  one  on  the  vomer,  tongue,  and  pharyngeals;  so  that  of  all 
fishes  it  is  the  most  completely  furnished  with  teeth.  In  the  old  male 
the  end  of  the  lower  jaw  is  bent  up  towards  the  palate,  where  a  cavity  re- 
ceives it  when  the  mouth  is  closed.  The  ventrals  are  opposite  to  the  mid- 
dle of  the  first  dorsal,  and  the  adipose  to  the  anal.  There  are  ten  branclual 
rays  or  thereabout.  The  body  is  usually  spotted,  and  the  flesh  good.  These 
fishes  ascend  rivers  to  spawn,  leaping  over  cataracts,  &c.,  and  are  even 
found  in  the  brooks  and  small  lakes  of  the  highest  mountains. 

S.salar^lj.  (The  Salmon.)  The  largest  species  of  the  genus,  with  red 
flesh  and  irregular  brown  spots,  which  soon  disappear  in  fresh  water;  the 
cartilaginous  hook  formed  by  the  lower  jaw  is  inconsiderable  even  in  the 


224  PISCES. 

old  male.  From  all  the  Arctic  seas,  whence  it  enters  the  rivers  in  the  spring. 
The  value  of  this  fishery  in  all  northern  countries  is  well  known. 

Besides  these  Salmons  and  Trouts  which  are  found  in  Europe,  several 
others  have  been  described  by  American  naturalists,  but  they  have  notbeen 
sufficiently  compared  with  the  former. 

In  one  of  the  various  subdivisions  of  this  great  genus  {Osmerus)  we  find 
the  Smelt. 

Sternoptyx,  Herman. 
A  genus  of  small  fishes  with  a  very  elevated  and  compressed  body,  support- 
ed by  the  ribs;  their  mouth  is  directed  upwards;  their  humerals  form  a 
trenchant  crest  in  front,  terminated  below  by  a  small  spine,  and  the  bones 
of  the  pelvis  form  another,  also  terminated  by  a  small  spine  in  front  of  the 
ventrals.  There  is  a  series  of  small  fossulae  along  each  side  of  the  pelvic 
crest  which  has  been  considered  as  a  festooned  dupUcature  of  the  sternum, 
whence  the  name  of  Sternoptyx.  They  are  taken  in  the  warm  parts  of  the 
Atlantic  Ocean. 


FAMILY  V. 

CLUPEiE. 

This  family  is  easily  recognized;  there  is  no  adipose  fin;  the  up- 
per javt'  is  formed,  as  in  the  Trouts,  by  intermaxillaries  without  pe- 
dicles in  the  middle,  and  by  the  maxillaries  on  the  sides;  the  body 
is  always  covered  with  numerous  scales,  and  in  the  greater  number 
we  find  a  natatory  bladder  and  many  caeca.  A  part  only  of  the 
family  ascend  rivers. 

Clupea,  Lin. 
The  Herrings  have  two  well  marked  characters  in  the  narrow  and  short  in- 
termaxillaries, that  constitute  but  a  small  portion  of  the  upper  jaw,  the  sides 
of  which  are  completed  by  the  maxillaries,  so  that  these  sides  are  alone  pro- 
tractile; and  in  the  inferior  edge  of  the  body,  which  is  compressed,  and 
where  the  scales  form  notches  resembling  those  of  a  saw.  The  maxillaries 
besides,  are  divided  into  three  parts.  The  branchiae  are  so  much  cleft,  that 
all  the  fishes  of  the  genus  are  said  to  die  instantly  when  taken  from  the 
water.  The  sides  of  the  branchial  rays  next  to  the  mouth  are  pectiniform. 
Of  all  fishes,  these  have  the  finest  and  most  numerous  bones. 

C.harengus,L,.  (The  Common  Herring.)  This  celebrated  fish  leaves 
the  Arctic  seas  every  summer  and  descends  in  autumn  on  the  western  coast 
of  France  in  numberless  legions,  or  rather  in  solid  shoaJs  of  incalculable  ex- 
tent, spawning  on  the  way,  and  arriving  at  the  mouth  of  the  British  chan- 
nel in  the  middle  of  winter,  in  a  very  extenuated  condition.     Whole  fleets 


MALACOPTERYGII  ABDOMINALES.       225 

are  occupied  in  this  fishery,  the  extent  and  importance  of  which  are  too 
well  known  to  need  a  comment.  The  best  are  those  taken  in  the  North; 
such  as  are  caught  on  the  coast  of  Lower  Normandy  are  lean,  dry,  and  of 
a  disagreeable  flavour. 

To  this  division  or  Clupea  proper,  belong  the  Sprat,  White-Bait,  Pilchard* 
and  Sardine. 

AtosA,  Cuv. 

Differs  from  Clupea,  properly  so  styled,  in  an  emargination  of  the  middle 
of  the  upper  jaw;  all  the  other  characters  are  those  of  the  Pilchard  and 
Sardine. 

A.  vulgaris.  (The  Shad.)  A  much  larger  and  thicker  fish  than  the 
Herring,  attaining  a  length  of  three  feet,  and  distinguished  by  the  absence 
of  sensible  teeth  and  by  an  irregular  black  spot  behind  the  gills.  It  ascends 
the  rivers  in  spring,  and  is  then  highly  esteemed;  when  taken  at  sea  it  is 
dry  and  of  a  disagreeable  flavour. 

Next  to  the  true  Clupeae  come  some  genera,  which  approach 
them  in  the  trenchant  and  indented  abdomen.  They  are  Odontog- 
nathus,  Pristigaster,  Notopterus^  Engraulis  (the  Anchovy),  Me- 
galopSf  Elops^  Hpodon^  &c.  &c. 


ORDER  III. 

MALACOPTERYGII  SUBRACHIATI. 

This  order  is  characterized  by  ventrals  inserted  under  the  pecto- 
rals; the  pelvis  is  also  directly  suspended  to  the  bones  of  the  shoul- 
der.    It  contains  almost  as  many  families  as  genera. 

FAMILY  I. 
GADITES. 

This  family  is  almost  wholly  composed  of  the  great  genus 

Gadus,  Lin. 

Recognized  by  the  ventrals,  which  are  pointed  and  attached  to  the  throat. 
The  body  is  moderately  elongated,  slightly  compressed,  and  covered  with 
rather  small  and  soft  scales;  the  head  is  well  proportioned,  but  without 
2  D 


226  PISCES. 

scalesj  all  the  fins  are  soft;  the  jaws  and  front  of  the  vomer  armed  with 
pointed,  unequal,  moderate  or  small  teeth,  disposed  in  several  rows,  and 
resembling- a  card  or  rasp;  the  bran chise  are  large  and  have  seven  rays. 
Most  of  the  genus  have  two  or  three  fins  on  the  back,  and  a  distinct  cau- 
dal. The  stomach  forms  a  strong  and  large  sac.  The  natatory  bladder  is 
large,  strong,  and  frequently  dentated  on  the  sides. 

The  greater  number  of  these  fishes  inhabit  cold  or  temperate  seas,  and 
constitute  the  object  of  important  fisheries.  Their  white  flesh,  easily  sep- 
arated in  layers,  is  generally  esteemed  as  light,  wholesome,  and  sapid. 
They  are  subdivided  into  several  subgenera.     In  Morrhua,  we  have 

Gadus  morrhua,  L.  (The  Cod. )  From  two  to  three  feet  long;  back 
spotted  with  yellowish  and  brown;  it  inhabits  the  whole  Northern  Ocean, 
and  multiplies  so  excessively  in  north  latitudes,  that  whole  fleets  are  annu- 
ally dispatched  to  capture  it. 

Gadus  scglefinus,  L.  (The  Haddock.)  The  back  brown,  belly  silvery, 
and  lateral  line  black;  a  blackish  spot  behind  the  pectoral;  quite  as  numer- 
ous in  northern  latitudes  as  the  Cod,  but  not  so  much  esteemed. 

In  the  subgenera  of  Gadus  we  find  the  Whiting,  Hake,  Ling,  &c. 


FAMILY  II. 

PLANI. 

Tlie  second  family  of  the  Malacopterygii  Subrachiati,  commonly 
called  Flat-Jishes,  comprises  the  great  genus 

Plettronectes,  Lin.(l) 
These  fishes  present  a  character,  which,  with  respect  to  vertebrated  ani- 
mals, is  perfectly  unique:  it  is  the  total  want  of  symmetry  in  the  head,  where 
both  eyes  are  en  one  side,  which  always  remains  uppermost  when  the  ani- 
mal is  swimming,  and  which,  is  always  deeply  coloured,  while  that  on  which 
the  eyes  are  wanting  is  always  whitish.  The  remainder  of  the  body, 
although,  generally  speaking,  formed  as  usual,  participates  a  little  in  this 
irregularity.  Thus  the  two  sides  of  the  mouth  are  not  equal,  and  the  two 
pectorals  are  rarely  so.  Their  body  is  strongly  compressed  and  vertically 
elevated;  the  dorsal  extends  along  the  whole  back;  the  anal  occupies  the 
under  part  of  the  body,  and  almost  seems  to  be  continued  forwards  by  the 
ventrals,  which  are  frequently  united  with  it.     There  are  six  rays  in  the 


(1)  Pleuronedes,  a  name  formed  by  Artedi  from  Trxtupu.  the  flank,  and  vhk- 
T«f  a  swimmer,  because  they  swim  on  the  side.  The  ancients  gave  them  dif- 
ferent names  according  to  the  species,  such  as  Passer,  Hhombua,  Bu- 
glossa,  Stc. 


MALACOPTERYGII  SUBRACHIATI.       227 

branchix.  They  are  taken  along' the  coasts  of  almost  all  countries,  and 
furnish  a  wholesome  and  delicious  article  of  food. 

Individuals  are  sometimes  captured  whose  eyes  are  placed  on  the  side 
opposite  to  that  in  wliich  they  are  generally  seen,  they  ai'e  then  said  to  be 
conloum^s  or  reversed,  others  again  have  both  sides  of  the  body  coloured 
alike,  when  they  are  called  doubles  or  doubled;  it  is  most  generally  the 
brown  side  which  is  thus  reproduced,  though  it  sometimes  happens  to  the 
white  one. 

The  subdivisions  of  this  genus  include  the  Plaice,  Flounder,  Sole,  Turbotf 
Halibut,  &c. 


FAMILY  III. 

DISCOBOLI. 

These  fishes,  so  called  on  account  of  the  disk  formed  by  their 
ventrals,  form  two  genera. 

Lepadogaster,  Gouan. 
The  small  fishes  which  compose  this  genus  are  remarkable  for  the  following 
characters.  Their  ample  pectorals  having  reached  the  inferior  surface  of 
the  trunk,  assume  stouter  rays,  curve  slightly  forwards,  and  unite  with  each 
other  on  the  throat  by  a  transverse  membrane  directed  forwards,  which  is 
formed  by  the  union  of  the  ventrals.  The  body  is  smooth  and  without 
scales,  the  head  broad  and  depressed,  the  snout  salient  and  protractile;  the 
branchiae,  but  slightly  cleft,  are  furnished  with  four  or  five  rays,  and  they 
have  but  a  single  soft  dorsal  opposite  to  a  similar  anal. 

Cyclopterus,  Lin. 

This  genus  is  well  marked  by  the  ventrals,  whose  rays,  suspended  round 
the  pelvis,  and  united  by  a  single  membrane,  form  an  oval  and  concave 
disk,  used  by  the  fish  as  a  sucker  to  attach  itself  to  rocks.  The  mouth  is 
wide,  and  its  jaws  and  pharyngeals  furnished  with  small  and  pointed  teeth; 
opercula  small;  branchise  closed  below,  and  provided  with  six  rays;  pecto- 
rals very  large,  and  uniting  almost  beneath  the  throat,  as  if  to  embrace  the 
disk  of  the  ventrals. 

Cycldpterus  lumpus,  Li.  (The  Lumpsucker.)  The  first  dorsal  so  envel- 
oped in  a  thick  and  tubercular  skin,  that  it  has  the  appearance,  externally, 
of  being  a  simple  dorsal  hump;  there  are  three  ranges  of  thick  conical  tu- 
bercles on  each  side  of  it.  It  feeds  on  Medusse  and  other  gelatinous  ani- 
mals, particularly  in  the  North.  Its  flesh  is  soft  and  insipid;  heavy  and  with 
scarcely  any  means  of  defence,  it  becomes  the  prey  of  the  Seal,  Shark,  &c. 
The  male  is  said  to  keep  careful  watch  over  the  eggs. 


228  PISCES. 

EcHENEis,  Lin. 

This  genus,  as  well  as  that  of  Pleuronectes,  might  forma  particular  family 
in  the  order  of  the  Malacopterygii  Subrachiati.  The  fishes  of  which  it  con- 
sists  are  remarkable  for  a  flattened  disk  placed  upon  their  head,  composed 
of  a  certain  number  of  transverse,  cartilaginous  lamina,  directed  obhquely 
backwards,  dentated  or  spiny  on  their  posterior  edge,  and  movable,  so  that 
by  creating  a  vacuum  between  them,  or  by  hooking  onto  various  bodies  by 
means  of  the  spines,  they  are  enabled  to  attach  themselves  firmly  thereto, 
a  circumstance  which  gave  rise  to  the  fabulous  saying,  that  the  Remora 
possessed  the  power  of  suddenly  stopping  a  vessel  in  the  middle  of  its 
swiftest  course. 

The  species  are  not  numerous;  the  most  common  one  that  inhabits  the 
MediteiTanean,  Echen.  remoraf  L.  well  known  by  the  name  of  Memora,  is 
the  shortest,  and  has  but  eighteen  laminae  in  its  disk. 


ORDER  IV. 

MALACOPTERYGII  APODES. 

This  order  may  be  considered  as  forming  but  a  single  natural 
family,  that  of  the 

ANGUILLIFORMES, 

Fishes  with  an  elongated  form,  a  thick  and  soft  skin  which  almost 
renders  its  scales  invisible,  and  but  few  bones.     The  great  genus 

MuEJENA,  Lin. 
Is  recognized  by  the  little  opercula  concentrically  surrounded  by  the  rays, 
all  of  which  are  enveloped  in  the  skin,  which  only  opens  at  a  considerable 
distance  back  by  a  hole  or  species  of  tube,  an  arrangement  which,  by  more 
completely  protecting  the  brancMse,  allows  these  fishes  to  remain  some 
time  out  of  water  without  perishing.  Their  body  is  long  and  slender;  their 
scales,  as  if  encrusted  in  a  fat  and  thick  skin,  are  only  distinctly  visible  after 
desiccation;  they  have  neither  ventrals  nor  cxca.  This  genus  has  been 
successively  separated  into  five  or  six  genera,  which  naturalists  are  com- 
pelled to  subdivide  still  more. 

Anguilla. 
Eeb  are  distinguished  by  the  two-fold  character  of  pectoral  fins  and  of 
branchise  opening  under  them  on  each  side. 


MALACOPTERYGII    APODES.  229 

CONGEK,  CuV. 

The  dorsal  commencing'  close  to  the  pectorals,  or  even  on  tliem;  the  up- 
per jaw  longest  in  all  the  known  species. 

JkTur.  conger,  L-  (The  Conger  Eel.)  Found  in  all  the  seas  of  Europe; 
it  attains  the  length  of  five  or  six  feet  and  the  thickness  of  a  man's  leg;  dorsal 
and  anal  edged  with  black;  lateral  line  dotted  with  whitish.  It  is  not  in 
much  request  for  the  table. 

MuRHNA,  Thunb. 

The  Murxnx,  properly  so  called,  have  no  vestige  of  pectorals;  their  bran- 
chiae open  on  each  side  by  a  small  hole;  their  opercula  are  so  thin,  and 
their  branch iostegal  rays  so  slender  and  concealed  under  the  skin,  that  able 
naturalists  have  denied  their  existence. 

M.  Helena,  L.  Common  in  the  Mediterranean;  a  fish  much  esteemed  by 
the  ancients,  who  fed  it  in  ponds  expressly  constructed  for  that  purpose. 
The  history  of  Vaedius  Pollio,  who  caused  his  transgressing  slaves  to  be 
flung  alive  into  these  ponds  as  food  for  the  Mursens,  is  well  known.  It  at- 
tains a  length  of  three  feet  and  more,  is  mottled  with  brown  and  yellowish, 
and  is  excessively  voracious. 

It  is  immediately  after  this  great  genus  of  the  Muraenas  that  should 
be  placed  a  newly  discovered  fish,  which  is  one  of  the  most  singular 
of  the  whole  class;  I  mean  the 

Saccopharynx,  Mitch. 
Whose  trunk,  susceptible  of  being  so  inflated  as  to  resemble  a  thick  tube, 
terminates  in  a  very  long  and  slender  tail,  surrounded  by  an  extremely  low 
dorsal  and  anal,  which  unite  at  its  point.  The  mouth,  armed  with  sharp 
teeth,  opens  far  behind  the  eyes,  which  are  placed  close  to  the  very  short 
point  of  the  snout.  The  branchial  aperture  consists  in  a  hole  under  the 
pectorals,  which  are  very  small. 

This  fish  attains  a  large  size,  and  appears  to  be  voracious.  It  has  only 
been  seen  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  floating  on  the  surface  by  the  dilatation  of 
its  throat. 

Gymnotus,  Lin.(l) 

The  giUs  partly  so  closed  by  a  membrane,  as  in  Anguilla,  but  opening  be- 
fore the  pectorals. 

G.  electricus,  L.  (The  Electrical  Gymnotus);  which,  from  its  almost  uni- 
form shape  and  obtuse  head  and  tail,  has  also  been  called  the  Electrical  Eel. 
It  is  from  five  to  six  feet  long,  and  communicates  such  violent  shocks  that 


(1)  Gymnotus,  or,  properly  speaking,  Gymnonotus  (Bare-back),  a  name 
given  to  these  fishes  by  Artedi. 


230  PISCES. 

men  and  horses  are  struck  down  by  them.  This  power  is  dependent  on 
the  will  of  the  animal,  which  gives  it  what  direction  it  pleases,  and  renders 
it  effective,  even  at  a  distance,  kilUng-  fishes  therewith,  so  situated.  It  is, 
however,  dissipated  by  use,  and  to  renew  it,  the  Gymnotus  requires  rest 
and  nourishing  food.  The  organ  which  is  the  seat  of  this  singular  faculty, 
extends  along  the  whole  under  side  of  the  tail,  occupying  about  half  its 
thickness;  it  is  divided  into  four  longitudinal  fasciculi,  two  large  ones  above 
and  two  smaller  ones  below,  and  against  the  base  of  the  anal  fin.  The  lit- 
tle cells,  or  rather  the  little  prismatic  and  transverse  canals  formed  by  the 
two  kinds  of  lamina  that  unite  the  bundles,  are  filled  with  a  gelatinous  mat- 
ter, and  the  whole  apparatus  receives  a  proportionably  large  number  of 
nerves. 

Gymnarchus,  Cuv. 
The  body  scaly  and  elongated,  and  the  gills  slightly  open  before  the  pecto- 
rals as  in  Gymnotus;  but  a  fin,  with  soft  rays,  occupies  the  whole  length  of 
the  back;  and  there  is  none  behind  the  anus,  nor  under  the  tail,  which  ter- 
minates in  a  point.  The  head  is  conical  and  naked,  the  mouth  small,  and 
furnished  with  a  single  row  of  small  trenchant  teeth. 

G.  niloticus.  The  only  species  known;  discovered  in  the  Nile  by  M. 
Riffault. 

Leptocephalus,  Penn. 
The  branchial  aperture  before  the  pectorals;  body  compressed  like  a  riband; 
head  extremely  small,  with  a  short  and  somewhat  pointed  snout;  pectorals 
almost  imperceptible,  or  totally  wanting;  the  dorsal  and  anal  hardly  visible, 
and  uniting  at  the  point  of  the  tail.  The  intestines  occupy  but  an  ex- 
tremely narrow  line  along  the  inferior  edge. 

L.  morisii,  Gm.,  inhabits  the  coast  of  France  and  England.  Several  other 
species,  however,  are  found  in  the  seas  of  hot  climates,  all  of  them  as  thin 
as  paper  and  transparent  as  glass,  so  that  even  the  skeleton  is  not  visible. 
The  profound  study  of  their  organization  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  to 
which  travellers  can  devote  themselves. 

Ophidium,  Lin. 

Dorsal  and  anal  fins  united  with  that  of  the  tail,  and  terminating  the  body 
in  a  point;  the  body  so  elongated  and  compressed  that  it  has  been  compared 
to  a  sword,  and  invested  like  that  of  an  Eel  with  small  scales  planted  in  the 
thickness  of  the  skin.  The  Ophidii,  however,  differ  from  Eels  In  their  well 
cleft  branchise,  which  are  furnished  with  a  very  apparent  operculum  and  a 
membrane  with  short  rays.  Their  dorsal  rays  are  articulated,  but  not 
branched. 

Ammodytes,  Lin. 
An  elongated  body  like  that  of  the  preceding  fishes,  provided  with  a  fin. 


MALACOPTERYGII    APODES.  231 

having-  articiilated  but  simple  rays,  occupying  a  great  part  of  the  back,  with 
a  second  behind  the  vent,  and  with  a  third  which  is  forked  at  the  end  of 
the  tail;  these  three  fins,  however,  are  separated  by  free  spaces.  The  snout 
is  acute;  the  upper  jaw  susceptible  of  extension,  and  the  lower  one,  when 
at  rest,  longer  than  the  other. 


ORDER  V. 

LOPHOBRANCHII(l). 

All  the  fishes  of  which  we  have  hitherto  spoken,  have  not  only  a 
bony  or  fibrous  skeleton,  and  complete  and  free  jaws,  but  their 
branchiae  are  uniformly  composed  of  laminse,  or  are  pectiniform. 
In  this  order,  however,  we  likewise  find  the  jaws  free  and  complete; 
but  it  is  eminently  distinguished  by  the  gills,  which,  instead  of 
resembling,  as  usual,  the  teeth  of  a  comb,  are  divided  into  small 
round  tufts,  arranged  in  pairs  along  the  branchial  arches,  a  struc- 
ture of  which  no  other  fishes  present  any  example.  They  are 
enclosed  beneath  a  large  operculum,  tied  down  on  all  sides  by  a 
membrane  which  leaves  only  a  single  small  orifice  for  the  exit  of  the 
water,  and  exhibiting  in  its  thickness  only  vestiges  of  rays.  These 
fishes  are  also  recognized  by  the  scutellated  plates  of  mail  which 
cover  their  body,  and  usually  render  it  angular.  They  are  generally 
small,  and  almost  without  flesh. 

Syngnathus,  Lin.(2) 
The  Syngnathi  constitute  a  numerous  genus  characterized  by  a  tubular 
snout,  formed,  like  that  of  the  Fistularidse,  by  the  prolongation  of  the 
ethmoid,  vomer,  tympanals,  preopercula,  subopercula,  &c.,  and  terminated 
by  an  ordinary  mouth,  but  one  that  is  cleft  almost  vertically  on  its  extremity. 
The  respiratory  aperture  is  near  the  nape;  and  the  ventrals  are  wanting. 
There  is  a  peculiarity  in  the  production  of  these  fishes,  whose  ova  shp  into 
a  pouch  formed  by  an  inflation  of  the  skin  and  are  hatched  there;  this  pouch, 
in  some,  is  situated  under  the  abdomen,  and  in  others  under  the  base  of  the 
tail;  it  spUts  spontaneously  for  the  passage  of  the  fry. 


(1)  Tufted  gills. 

(2)  From  a-uv  and  yva^oc  (united  jaws),  a  name  composed  by  Artedi,  who 
thought  that  the  tube  of  the  snout  of  these  fishes  was  formed  by  the  union 
of  their  jaws. 


232  PISCES. 

There  are  three  subgenera,  viz.  Hippocampus  (the  Sea-horse),  Soknotto- 
mua,  and  Pegaaua. 


ORDER  VI. 
PLECTOGNATHI(l). 

We  have  now  passed  from  the  preceding  five  orders  of  bony  or 
fibrous  fishes,  with  free  and  complete  jaws,  to  the  sixth,  which  may 
be  approximated  to  the  Chondropterygii,  with  which  it  is  allied  by 
the  imperfection  of  the  jaws,  and  the  tardy  induration  of  the  skele- 
ton; this  skeleton,  however,  is  fibrous,  and  its  whole  structure  is  that 
of  ordinary  fishes.  The  most  distinguishing  character  of  the  order 
consists  in  the  maxillary  bono  being  soldered  to  the  side  of  the  in- 
termaxillary, which  alone  constitutes  the  jaw,  and  in  the  mode  in 
which  the  palatine  arch  is  connected  with  the  cranium,  which,  being 
by  a  suture,  consequently  renders  it  immovable.  Besides  this,  the 
opercula  and  rays  are  concealed  under  a  thick  skin,  through  which 
only  a  small  branchial  fissure  is  visible.  Of  ribs,  nothing  is  to  be 
found  but  very  small  vestiges.     There  are  no  true  ventrals. 

This  order  comprises  two  very  natural  families,  characterized  by 
their  mode  of  dentition. 


FAMILY  I. 

GYMN0D0NTES(2). 

The  Gymnodontes  have  jaws,  which,  instead  of  teeth,  are  fur- 
nished with  an  ivory  substance,  internally  divided  into  laminae,  whose 
ensemble  resembles  the  beak  of  a  Parrot,  and  which  in  fact  consists 
of  true  teeth  united,  that  succeed  each  other  as  fast  as  they  are  de- 
stroyed by  trituration.  The  opercula  are  small,  and  there  are  five 
rays  on  each  side,  all  of  which  are  but  imperfectly  seen.  They  live 
on  Crustacea  and  fucus,  their  fiesh  is  mucous,  and  that  of  several 
species  is  considered  poisonous,  at  least  in  certain  seasons. 


(1)  Cheeks  united  by  suture.  (2)  Naked  teeth. 


PLECTOGNATHI.  233 

Two  of  the  genera,  Tetraodon  and  Diodon,  have  the  faculty  of 
swelling  themselves  up  like  a  balloon,  by  filling  their  stomach  (or 
rather  a  sort  of  very  thin  and  extensible  crop,  which  occupies  the 
whole  length  of  the  abdomen,  and  adheres  closely  to  the  peritoneum, 
a  circumstance  which  has  occasioned  it  to  be  considered  at  one 
time  as  the  peritoneum  itself,  and  at  another  as  a  species  of  epi- 
ploon) with  air.  When  thus  inflated,  they  roll  over,  and  float  on  the 
surface,  with  the  abdomen  upwards,  unable  to  direct  their  course; 
but  they  are  extremely  well  defended  while  in  this  position  by  the 
erection  of  the  spines  with  which  their  skin  is  everywhere  furnished. 

DioDON,  Lin. 

So  called  because  the  jaws  are  undivided  and  formed  of  one  piece  above 
and  another  below.  Behind  the  trenchant  edge  of  eacli  of  these  pieces,  ia 
a  round  portion,  transversely  furi'owed,  which  constitutes  a  powerful  instru- 
ment of  mastication.  The  skin  is  everywhere  so  armed  with  stout  pointed 
spines,  that  when  inflated,  they  resemble  the  burr  of  a  chestnut  tree.  A 
number  of  species  inliabit  the  seas  of  hot  climates. 

Tetraodon,  Lin. 
Jaws  divided  in  the  middle  by  a  suture,  so  as  present  the  appearance  of 
four  teeth,  two  above  and  two  below;  spines  small  and  low.     Several  spe- 
cies are  said  to  be  poisonous. 

Cephalits,  Sh. 

Jaws  undivided  as  in  Diodon;  but  the  body,  compressed  and  spineless,  is 
not  susceptible  of  inflation,  and  the  tail  is  so  short  and  high  that  this  fish 
resembles  one  whose  posterior  portion  has  been  truncated,  producing  a 
singular  appearance,  that  is  amply  suflicient  to  distinguish  it.  A  thick  layer 
of  a  gelatinous  substance  is  spread  under  the  skin. 

C.  brevis,  Sh.  (The  Short  Sunfish.)  Four  feet  and  more  in  length, 
and  weighing  upwards  of  three  hundred  pounds;  the  skin  is  very  rough,  and 
of  a  fine  silver  colour.     European  seas. 

Teiodon,  Cuv. 
We  also  make  a  separate  genus  of  these  fishes,  whose  upper  jaw  is  divid- 
ed as  in  Tetraodon,  and  the  lower  one  single,  as  in  Diodon.  An  enormous 
dewlap  almost  as  long  as  the  body  and  twice  as  high,  is  supported  before 
by  a  very  large  bone  which  represents  the  pelvis  and  approximates  them 
to  certain  Bahstes.  Their  fins  are  those  of  a  Diodon,  their  body  is  rough 
as  in  Tetraodon,  and  the  surface  of  their  dewlap  is  covered  with  numerous, 
small,  rough  crests,  placed  obhquely. 

T.  bursarius,  Reinw.     The  only  species  known;  it  was  discovered  in  the 
Indian  Ocean  by  M.  Reinwai'd. 
2  E 


234  PISCES. 

FAMILY  II. 

SCLERODERMI(l). 

The  second  family  of  the  Plectognathi  is  easily  distinguished  by 
a  conical  or  pyramidical  snout,  prolonged  from  the  eyes  and  termi- 
nated by  a  small  mouth,  armed  with  a  few  distinct  teeth  in  each  jaw. 
The  skin  is  usually  rough  or  invested  with  hard  scales;  the  nata- 
tory bladder  is  oval,  large,  and  strong. 

Balistes,  Lin. 

The  body  compressed;  eight  teeth  in  a  single  row  in  each  jaw,  generally 
trenchant;  the  skin  scaly  or  granulated,  but  not  exactly  osseous;  the  first  dor- 
sal composed  of  one  or  more  spines  articulated  with  a  particular  bone  which 
is  attached  to  the  cranium,  marked  by  a  furrow  into  which  they  are  received; 
the  second  dorsal  long,  soft,  and  placed  opposite  to  a  nearly  similar  anal. 

These  fishes  abound  in  the  torrid  zone,  near  rocks  and  on  the  surface  of 
the  water,  where  they  display  their  brilliant  colours.  Their  flesh,  which  is 
but  lightly  esteemed  at  all  times,  becomes,  it  is  said,  poisonous  during  the 
period  in  which  they  feed  on  the  coralline  Polypi:  fucus  is  all  that  I  met 
with  in  those  I  opened. 

JB.  capriscus,  L,.  (The  Mediterranean  File-Fish. )  Brownish-grey,  spot- 
ted with  blue,  or  greenish.     Its  flesh  is  not  esteemed. 

OsTKACioN,  Lin. 

The  head  and  body  of  these  fishes,  instead  of  scales,  are  covered  with  regu- 
lar bony  plates  solvered  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  a  sort  of  inflexible 
shield,  which  invests  them,  so  that  the  only  movable  parts  are  the  tail,  fins, 
mouth,  and  a  sort  of  small  lip  with  which  the  edge  of  their  gills  is  furnished, 
all  passing  through  holes  in  this  coat  of  mail. 


CH0NDR0PTERYGII(2). 

The  second  series  of  the  class  of  fishes,  or  the  Chondropterygii, 
can  neither  be  considered  as  superior  nor  inferior  to  that  of  the 
Ordinary  Fishes,  for  several  of  its  genera  approach  the  Reptiles  in 
the  conformation  of  the  ear  while  in  others  the  organization  is  so 
simple,  and  the  skeleton  so  much  reduced,  that  we  might  be  ex- 
cused for  hesitating  to  place  them  among  vertebrate  animals.     It  is 


(1)  Rough-skinned.  (2)  Cartilaginous-finned. 


CHONDROPTERYGII.  235 

therefore  a  suite  somewhat  parallel  to  the  first,  as  the  Marsupialia, 
for  instance,  are  parallel  to  the  other  unguiculated  Mammalia. 

The  skeleton  of  the  Chondropterygii  is  essentially  cartilaginous: 
that  is,  it  contains  no  osseous  fibres,  the  calcareous  matter  being 
deposited  in  small  grains,  and  not  in  filaments;  hence  the  absence 
of  sutures  in  their  cranium,  which  is  always  formed  of  a  single  piece, 
but  in  which,  by  means  of  projections,  depressions,  and  holes,  re- 
gions analogous  to  those  in  the  cranium  of  other  fishes  may  be  dis- 
tinguished. It  sometimes  happens  that  movable  articulations,  which 
are  found  in  other  orders,  are  not  met  with  in  this  one;  part  of  the 
vertebrae  of  certain  Rays,  for  instance,  being  united  in  a  single  body. 
Some  of  the  articulations  of  the  bones  of  the  face  also  disappear, 
and  the  most  apparent  character  of  this  division  consists  in  the  ab- 
sence of  the  maxillaries  and  intermaxillaries,  or  rather  in  their  re- 
duction to  mere  vestiges  concealed  under  the  skin,  while  their 
functions  are  fulfilled  by  bones  analogous  to  the  palatines,  and  even 
sometimes  by  the  vomer.  The  gelatinous  substance,  vehich  in  other 
fishes  fills  the  intervals  of  the  vertebrae,  and  only  communicates  with 
them  by  a  small  hole,  forms  a  long  cord  in  several  of  the  Chon- 
dropterygii, which  traverses  the  bodies  of  almost  all  the  vertebrae, 
without  scarcely  varying  in  diameter. 

This  series  is  divided  into  two  orders— the  Chondropterygii  whose 
branchiae  are  free,  like  those  of  ordinary  fishes;  and  those  in  which 
they  are  fixed,  that  is  to  say,  attached  to  the  skin  by  their  external 
edge  in  such  a  manner  that  the  water  can  only  escape  from  their 
intervals  through  holes  on  the  surface. 


ORDER  I. 

STURIONES,  OR  CHONDROPTERYGII  BRANCHIIS 
LIBERIS, 

Or  Chondropterygii,  with  free  hranchm^  which  are  still  closely 
allied  to  the  ordinary  fishes  in  their  gills,  which  have  but  a  single 
wide  opening,  and  are  furnished  with  an  operculum,  but  without 
rays  in  the  membrane.     This  order  comprises  but  two  genera. 


236  PISCES. 

AciPENSEE,  Lin.(l) 
The  general  form  of  the  Sturgeon  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Shark,  but  the 
body  is  more  or  less  covered  with  bony  plates  in  longitudinal  rows;  the  ex- 
terior portion  of  the  head  is  also  well  mailed;  the  mouth,  placed  under  the 
snout,  is  small  and  edentated;  the  palatine,  soldered  to  the  maxillaries,  con- 
verts them  into  theupper  jaw,  and  vestiges  of  the  intermaxillaries  are  found 
in  the  thickness  of  the  lips.  This  mouth,  placed  on  a  pedicle  that  has  three 
articulations,  is  more  protractile  than  that  of  a  Shark.  The  eyes  and  nostrils 
are  on  the  side  of  the  head,  and  cirri  are  inserted  under  the  snout.  The 
labyrinth  is  perfectly  formed  in  the  cranial  bone,  but  there  is  no  vestige  of 
an  external  ear.  A  hole  perforated  behind  the  temple  is  a  mere  spiracle, 
which  leads  to  the  branchise. 

The  Stui'geon  ascends  certsdn  rivers  in  great  numbers,  and  is  the  object  of 
important  fisheries;  the  flesh  of  most  species  is  agreeable,  their  ova  are  con- 
verted into  caviar,  and  their  natatory  bladder  into  isinglass.  Western  Eu- 
rope produces 

^.  ruthenus,  L.  (The  Sterlet.)  Seldom  more  than  two  feet  in  length; 
plates  of  the  lateral  rows  more  numerous  and  carinated,  those  of  the  belly 
flat.  It  is  considered  a  dehcious  fish,  and  its  caviar  is  reserved  for  the 
Russian  court.  There  is  reason  to  believe  that  it  is  the  Elops  and  the  Ad- 
penser,  so  highly  celebrated  among  the  ancients. 

j3.  huso,  L.  (The  great  Sturgeon. )  Blunter  plates  and  a  shorter  snout 
and  cirri  than  those  of  the  Common  Sturgeon;  the  skin  also  is  smoother. 
It  is  frequently  found  to  exceed  twelve  and  fifteen  feet  in  length,  and  to 
weigh  more  than  twelve  hundred  pounds.  One  specimen  was  captured 
whose  weight  amounted  to  near  three  thousand  pounds.  The  flesh  is  not 
much  esteemed,  and  is  sometimes  unwholesome;  but  the  finest  isinglass  is 
made  from  its  natatory  bladder.  It  is  also  found  in  the  Po.  North  America 
has  several  species  of  this  genus  which  are  peculiar  to  it. 

Spatularia,  Sh. 
These  fishes  are  recognized  at  once  by  the  enormous  prolongation  of  their 
snout,  to  whicli  its  broad  borders  give  the  fignre  of  a  leaf.  Their  general 
form  and  the  position  of  their  fins  remindthe  observer  of  a  Sturgeon,  but 
their  gills  are  still  more  open,  and  the  operculum  is  prolonged  into  a  mem- 
branous point  which  extends  to  near  the  middle  of  the  body.  The  mouth 
is  well  cleft  and  furnished  with  numerous  small  teeth. 

But  a  single  species  is  known,  the  Paddle-fish  of  the  Mississippi. 

CiiiMJERA,  Lin. 
The  Chimserx  are  closely  allied  to  the  Sharks  in  tlieir  general  form  and  in 
the  position  of  their  fins,  but  all  their  branchise  open  externally  by  a  single 


(1)  ^cipenser  is  the  ancient  name;  Sturio,  whence  Sturgeon,  is  modem, 
and  is  probably  the  German  name  Stoer  latinized. 


CHONDROPTERYGII  BRANCHIIS  LIBERIS.  237 

apparent  hole  on  each  side,  although  if  we  penetrate  more  deeply,  we 
find  that  they  are  attached  by  a  large  part  of  their  edges,  and  that  in  fact 
there  are  five  particulai*  holes  terminating  in  the  bottom  of  the  common 
aperture.  A  vestige  of  an  operculum,  however,  is  concealed  under  the 
skin.  The  jaws  are  still  more  reduced  than  in  the  Shark,  for  the  palatine 
and  tympanic  bones  are  also  mere  vestiges  suspended  to  the  sides  of  the 
snout,  and  the  vomer  is  the  only  representative  of  the  upper  jaw.  Hard 
and  indivisible  plates  supply  the  place  of  teeth,  four  on  the  upper  jaw  and. 
two  on  the  lower.  The  snout,  supported  like  that  of  a  Shark,  projects 
forwards  and  is  pierced  with  pores  aiTanged  in  tolerably  regular  lines;  the 
first  dorsal,  armed  with  a  strong  spine,  is  placed  over  the  pectorals.  They 
produce  very  large  coriaceous  eggs  with  flattened  and  hairy  borders. 

C.  monstrosa,  L.  (The  Arctic  Chimaera.)  Two  or  three  feet  long,  of  a 
silvery  colour,  and  spotted  with  brown.  From  the  Northern  and  Euro- 
pean seas. 


ORDER  II. 

CHONDROPTERYGII  BRANCHIIS  FIXIS, 

Or  the  Chondropterygii  with  fixed  branchias,  instead  of  having 
those  organs  free  on  the  external  edge,  and  opening  all  their  inter- 
vals into  a  large  common  orifice,  as  is  the  case  in  all  the  fishes  of 
which  we  have  hitherto  spoken,  have  them  adhering  by  this  external 
edge  in  such  a  manner  that  they  permit  the  water  to  escape  through 
as  many  holes  pierced  in  the  skin  as  there  are  intervals  between 
them,  or,  at  least,  that  these  holes  may  terminate  in  a  common  duct, 
through  which  the  water  is  ejected.  Another  circumstance  pecu- 
liar to  these  fishes  is  the  presence  of  little  cartilaginous  bows,  fre- 
quently suspended  in  the  muscles  opposite  to  the  external  edges  of 
the  branchia;,  and  which  may  be  termed  branchial  ribs. 

FAMILY  I. 

SELACHII. 

This  family,  hitherto  comprized  under  two  genera,  Sqtjalus  and 
Raia,  has  many  common  characters.  The  palatines  and  post-man- 
dibularies,  alone  armed  with  teeth,  supply  the  place  of  jaws,  the 
usual  bones  of  which  are  reduced  to  mere  vestiges;  one  single  bone 
suspends  these  apparent  jaws  to  the  cranium,  representing  at  once 


238  PISCES. 

the  tympanal,  jugal  and  temporal  bones,  and  the  preoperculum. 
The  hyoid  bone  is  attached  to  the  single  pedicle  just  mentioned,  and 
supports  branchiostegal  rays,  as  in  ordinary  fishes,  although  they 
are  not  so  very  visible,  externally;  it  is  followed  by  the  branchial 
arches,  as  usual,  but  neither  of  the  three  pieces  compose  the  oper- 
culum. These  fishes  have  both  pectorals  and  ventrals:  the  latter 
are  situated  behind  the  abdomen.  Their  membranous  labyrinth  is 
enclosed  by  the  cartilaginous  substance  of  the  cranium;  the  sac, 
which  constitutes  part  of  it,  contains  mere  amylaceous  masses,  and 
not  stones. 

Sqtjalus,  Lin. 
Tlie  Sharks  form  a  first  great  genus  distinguished  by  an  elongated  body,  a 
thick  fleshy  tail  and  moderate  pectorals,  so  that  the  general  figure  ap- 
proaches that  of  ordinary  fishes;  the  branchial  openings  correspond  with 
the  sides  of  the  neck,  and  not  with  the  under  surface  of  the  body,  as  we  shall 
see  is  the  case  with  the  Rays;  the  eyes  also  are  on  the  sides  of  the  head. 
The  snout  is  supported  by  three  cartilaginous  branches  connected  with  the 
anterior  part  of  the  cranium,  and  the  rudiments  of  the  maxillaries,  inter- 
maxillarles,  and  premandibularies  are  evident  in  the  skeleton. 

Several  are  viviparous.  The  others  produce  ova  invested  with  a  yellow 
and  transparent  horn,  the  angles  of  which  are  prolonged  into  horny  cords. 
The  little  branchial  ribs  are  apparent,  and  there  are  also  small  ones  along 
the  sides  of  the  spine,  which  is  completely  divided  into  vertebrx.  The  ge- 
nus is  very  numerous  and  authorizes  various  subdivisions. 

Cahchahias,  Cuv. 

A  numerous  and  by  far  the  most  celebrated  tribe;  with  trenchant,  pointed 
teeth,  most  commonly  dentated  on  the  margin.  The  first  dorsal  is  far  be- 
Fore  the  ventrals,  and  the  second  about  opposite  to  the  anal.  The  spiracles 
are  wanting;  the  nostrils  are  placed  under  the  middle  of  the  depressed  snout, 
and  the  last  branchial  apertures  extend  over  the  pectorals. 

Sq^  carcharias,  L.  (The  White  Shark.)  This  species  attains  the  length 
of  twenty-five  feet,  and  is  recognized  by  its  teeth,  which  in  the  upper  jaw 
nearly  form  isosceles  triangles  with  rectilinear  and  dentated  sides.  The 
lower  ones  consist-©f  narrow  points  placed  on  wider  bases,  terrific  weapons, 
which  are  the  dread  of  mariners.  It  would  appear  that  it  inhabits  every 
sea;  but  its  name  has  frequently  been  applied  to  other  species  with  tren- 
chant teeth. 

Selache,  Cuv., 
In  addition  to  the  form  of  the  Squali,  and  the  spiracles  of  the  Galei,  is 
furnished  with  branchial  openings  that  are  nearly  large  enough  to  encircle 
the  neck,  and  with  small  conical  and  unemarginate  teeth. 


CHONDROPTERYGII  BRANCHIIS  FIXIS.  239 

The  common  species,  Sg,  maximus,  L.  (The  Basking  Shark),  has  no- 
thing of  the  ferocity  of  the  Shark,  although  it  surpasses  it  in  size  as  well  as 
all  other  Squali.  Individuals  have  been  captured  that  were  more  than 
thirty  feet  in  length.  It  inhabits  the  Arctic  Seas,  but  is  sometimes  driven 
on  the  coast  of  France  by  the  strength  of  the  north-east  winds.  There  are 
several  other  subgenera. 

A  second  genus  may  be  formed  of  the 

Zygcena,  Cuv. 
"Which  to  the  characters  of  a  Carcharias,  adds  a  form  of  head  of  which  there 
is  no  other  example  in  tlie  animal  kingdom.  It  is  horizontally  flattened  and 
truncated  before,  the  sides  extending  transversely  in  branches,  which  give 
it  a  resemblance  to  the  head  of  a  hammer;  the  eyes  are  placed  at  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  branches,  and  the  nostrils  on  their  anterior  edge. 

The  most  common  species  of  the  European  seas,  Sg,  zygoena,  is  some- 
times twelve  feet  long. 

Squatina,  Dumer. 
Spiracles,  but  no  anal,  as  in  the  third  division  of  the  Squali,  but  differing 
from  aU  of  them  in  the  mouth,  which  is  cleft  in  the  end  of  the  snout  and 
not  beneath,  and  in  the  eyes,  which  are  placed  on  its  dorsal  surface  and  not 
on  the  sides.  The  head  is  roimd,  the  body  broad  and  horizontally  flattened, 
the  pectorals  large  and  extending  forwards,  but  separated  from  the  body  by 
a  fissure  where  the  branchial  orifices  are  pierced;  the  two  dorsals  are  behind 
the  ventrals,  and  the  caudal  is  attached  both  above  and  beneath.     The 

Sguat.  angelus  (The  Angel-Fish)  attains  a  considerable  size  in  the  Euro- 
pean seas.  Its  skin  is  rough,  and  the  edges  of  the  pectorals  are  furnished 
with  small  spines. 

Peistis,  Lath.(l) 
The  SawFish  forms  a  fourth  genus.  To  the  elongated  form  of  the  Squali 
it  unites  a  body  flattened  before  and  branchiae  opening  below,  as  in  the  Rays; 
but  its  peculiar  chaaracter  consists  in  a  very  long  depressed  snout  resembling 
the  blade  of  a  sword,  armed  on  each  side  with  stout,  bony,  trenchant  and 
pointed  spines,planted  like  teeth.  This  beak,  from  which  these  fishes  de- 
rive their  name,  is  a  most  powerful  weapon,  and  with  it  they  attack  the 
largest  Whales.  The  true  teeth  of  their  jaws  resemble  small  paving  stones, 
like  those  of  a  Mustelus. 

The  common  species,  Pristis  antiguorum.  Lath.,  attains  a  length  of  twelve 
or  fifteen  feet. 


(1)  n/)»VT<f,  saw;  the  Greek  name  of  this  fish. 


240  PISCES. 

Raia,  Lin.(l) 
The  Rays  form  a  less  numerous  genus  than  the  Squali.  They  are  recognized 
by  the  horizontally  flattened  body  which  resembles  a  disk,  from  its  union 
with  the  extremely  broad  and  fleshy  pectorals  which  are  joined  to  each 
other  before  or  to  the  snout,  and  which  extend  behind  the  two  sides  of  the 
abdomen  as  far  as  the  base  of  the  ventrals.  The  eyes  and  spiracles  are 
seated  on  the  dorsal  surface,  the  mouth,  nostrils,  and  orifices  of  the  bran- 
chiae on  the  opposite  one.  The  dorsal  fins  are  almost  always  on  the  tail. 
The  ova  are  brown,  coriaceous,  and  square,  the  angles  extended  into  points. 
In  the  various  subdivisions  of  this  genus,  we  find  the  Sting-Ray,  Spotted 
Torpedo,  Thornback,  Skate,  &c.     The  most  remarkable  subgenus  is 

ToaPEDO,  Dum. 
The  tall  short,  but  still  tolerably  fleshy;  disk  of  the  body  nearly  circular, 
the  anterior  border  being  formed  by  two  productions  of  the  snout  which  in- 
cline side-wise  in  order  to  reach  the  pectorals;  the  space  between  these 
pectorals,  head  and  branchiae  is  filled  on  each  side  with  a  singular  apparatus 
formed  of  httle  membranous  tubes  placed  close  together  like  a  honeycomb, 
subdivided  by  horizontal  diaphragms  into  small  cells  fiUed  with  a  sort  of 
mucus,  and  traversed  by  numerous  nerves  proceeding  from  the  eighth  paii-. 
It  is  in  this  apparatus  that  resides  the  electric  or  galvanic  power  which  has 
rendered  the  Torpedo  so  celebrated;  violent  shocks  are  experienced  by 
touching  it,  and  it  is  most  probable  that  the  same  power  is  employed  to 
bewilder  its  prey.     The  body  is  smooth,  the  teeth  small  and  sharp. 


FAMILY  II. 

SUCTORII— CYCLOSTOMI,  Dumer. 

The  Suctorii,  as  regards  the  skeleton,  are  the  most  imperfect  of 
fishes,  and  even  of  all  vertebrate  animals.  They  have  neither  pec- 
torals nor  ventrals;  their  elongated  body  is  terminated  before  by  a 
circular  or  semicircular  jleshy  lip,  and  the  cartilaginous  ring  which 
supports  it  results  from  the  soldering  of  the  palatines  to  the  mandi- 
bularies.  The  bodies  of  all  the  vertebrae  are  traversed  by  a  single 
tendinous  cord  filled  with  a  mucilaginous  substance  without  strangu- 
lations, which  reduces  them  to  the  condition  of  cartilaginous  rings, 
scarcely  distinct  from  each  other.  The  annular  portion,  a  little 
more  solid  than  the  rest,  is  not  however  cartilaginous  throughout 
the  whole  of  its  circle.     They  have  no  ordinary  ribs;  but  the  small 


(1)  Raia  in  Latin,  Bar/;  and  B^itos  in  Greek,  are  the  ancient  names  of 
these  fishes. 


CHONDROPTERYGII  BRANCHIIS  FIXIS.  241 

branchial  ones,  which  are  hardly  perceptible  in  the  Squali  and  Rays, 
are  here  greatly  developed  and  united  with  each  other,  forming  a 
kind  of  cage,  while  there  are  no  solid  branchial  arches.  The  bran- 
chiae, instead  of  being  pectinated  as  in  all  other  fishes,  resemble  pur- 
ses, resulting  from  the  junction  of  one  face  of  a  branchia  with  the 
opposing  one  of  its  neighbour.  The  labyrinth  of  the  ear  is  en- 
closed by  the  cranium,  and  the  nostrils  open  externally  by  a  single 
orifice,  in  front  of  which  is  a  blind  cavity. 

Petkomyzon,  Li  n .  ( 1 ) 
Tlie  Lampreys  have  seven  branchial  openings  on  each  side;  the  skin  of  the 
tail  above  and  beneath  is  turned  up  into  a  longitudinal  crest  which  supplies 
the  place  of  a  fin,  but  in  which  the  rays  resemble  scarcely  visible  fibres. 

The  maxillary  ring  of  the  True  Lamprey  is  armed  with  strong  teeth,  and 
the  interior  disk  of  the  lip,  which  is  very  circular,  is  furnished  with  tuber- 
cles covered  with  an  extremely  hard  shell,  and  similar  to  teeth.  There  are 
two  longitudinal  rows  of  small  teeth  on  the  tongue,  which  moves  backwards 
and  forwards  like  a  piston;  by  this,  that  suction  is  produced  which  distin- 
guishes this  animal.  Water  reaches  the  branchiae  from  the  mouth  by  a  par- 
ticular membranous  canal,  placed  under  the  oesophagus  and  perforated  with 
holes,  that  may  be  compared  to  a  trachea.  These  fishes  habitually  fix 
themselves  by  suction  to  stones  and  other  sohd  bodies;  they  attack  the 
largest  fishes  in  the  same  way,  and  are  finally  enabled  to  pierce  and  de- 
vour them. 

P.  marinus,  L.  (The  Sea  Lamprey.)  Two  or  three  feet  in  length, 
marbled  with  brown  on  a  yellowish  ground;  two  large  approximated  teeth 
on  the  upper  part  of  the  maxillary  ring.  It  ascends  the  mouths  of  rivers  in 
the  spring,  and  is  highly  esteemed. 

P .  fluvialis,  "L.  (The  River  Lamprey.)  From  a  foot  to  eighteen  Inches 
in  length;  silvery,  blackish  and  oHve  on  the  back;  first  dorsal  very  distinct 
from  the  second;  two  large  separated  teeth  on  the  upper  part  of  the  maxil- 
lary ring.    Inhabits  rivers,  &c. 

Myxine,  Lin. 
But  a  single  tooth  on  the  upper  part  of  the  maxillary  ring,  which  is  alto- 
gether membranous;  lateral  dentations  of  the  tongue  strong,  and  arranged 
in  two  rows  on  each  side,  so  that  the  jaws  of  these  fishes  seem  to  be  lateral 
like  those  of  Insects  or  the  Nereides,  which  induced  Linnaeus  to  place  them 
in  the  class  of  Vermes;  the  rest  of  their  organization,  however,  is  analogous 


(1)  Lamproye,  Lampreda,  Lamprey,  corruptions  of  Lampetra,  which  is 
itself  modern,  and,  according  to  some,   derived  from  Lambendo,  petras. 
Petromyzon  is  the  Greek  translation  of  the  same,  by  Artedi. 
2  F 


242  PISCES. 

to  that  of  the  Lampreys:  the  tong-ue  also  acts  like  a  piston,  and  the  spine 
of  the  back  is  in  the  form  of  a  cord.  The  mouth  is  circular  and  surrounded 
witli  eight  cu'ri;  in  its  upper  margin  is  a  spiracle  which  communicates  with 
its  interior.  The  body  is  cylindrical,  and  furnished  behind  with  a  fin  that 
sun-ounds  tlie  tail.  There  are  no  vestiges  of  eyes.  The  eggs  become 
large.  These  singular  animals  pour  out  such  an  abundance  of  mucus  through 
the  pores  of  their  lateral  line,  that  the  water  of  the  vases  in  which  they  are 
kept  seems  to  be  converted  into  a  jelly.  They  attack  and  pierce  other 
fishes  like  the  Lampreys. 

They  are  subdivided  according  to  the  external  orifices  of  their  branchije. 


243 


SECOND  GREAT  DIVISION  OF  THE  ANIMAL 
KINGDOM. 

ANIMALIA  M0LLUSCA.(1) 

The  Mollusca  have  neither  an  articulated  skeleton  nor  a  verte- 
bral canal.  Their  nervous  system  is  not  united  in  a  spinal  marrow, 
but  merely  in  a  certain  number  of  medullary  masses  dispersed  in 
different  points  of  the  body,  the  chief  of  which,  termed  the  brain,  is 
situated  transversely  on  the  oesophagus,  and  envelopes  it  with  a 
nervous  collar.  Their  organs  of  motion  and  of  the  sensations  have 
not  the  same  uniformity  as  to  number  and  position,  as  in  the  Verte- 
brata,  and  the  irregularity  is  still  more  striking  in  the  viscera,  par- 
ticularly as  respects  the  position  of  the  heart  and  respiratory  organs, 
and  even  as  regards  the  structure  of  the  latter;  for  some  of  them 
respire  elastic  air,  and  others  salt  or  fresh  water.  Their  external 
organs,  however,  and  those  of  locomotion,  are  generally  arranged 
symmetrically  on  the  two  sides  of  an  axis. 

The  circulation  of  the  Mollusca  is  always  double;  that  is,  their 
pulmonary  circulation  describes  a  separate  and  distinct  circle. 

The  blood  of  the  Mollusca  is  white  or  bluish,  and  it  appears  to 
contain  a  smaller  proportionate  quantity  of  fibrine  than  that  of  the 
Vertebrata.  There  are  reasons  for  believing  that  their  veins  fulfil 
the  functions  of  absorbent  vessels. 

Their  muscles  are  attached  to  various  points  of  their  skin,  form- 
ing tissues  there  which  are  more  or  less  complex  and  dense.     Their 


(1)  Soft  animals. 


244  MOLLUSCA. 

motions  consist  of  various  contractions  which  produce  inflexions 
and  prolongations  of  their  different  parts,  or  a  relaxation  of  the  same, 
by  means  of  which  they  creep,  swim,  and  seize  upon  various  ob- 
jects, just  as  the  form  of  these  parts  may  permit;  but  as  the  limbs 
are  not  supported  by  articulated  and  sohd  levers,  they  cannot  ad- 
vance rapidly,  or  per  saltum. 

The  irritability  of  most  of  them  is  extremely  great,  and  remains 
for  a  long  time  after  they  are  divided.  Their  skin  is  naked,  very 
sensible,  and  usually  covered  with  a  humour  that  oozes  from  its 
pores.  No  particular  organ  of  smell  has  ever  been  detected  in  them, 
although  they  enjoy  that  sense;  it  may  possibly  reside  in  the  entire 
skin,  for  it  greatly  resembles  a  pituitary  membrane.  All  the  Aca- 
lepha,  Brachiopoda,  Cirrhopoda,  and  part  of  the  Gasteropoda  and 
Pteropoda,  are  deprived  of  eyes;  the  Cephalopoda  on  the  contrary 
have  them  at  least  as  complicated  as  those  of  the  warm-blooded 
animals.  They  are  the  only  ones  in  which  the  organ  of  hearing  has 
been  discovered,  and  whose  brain  is  enclosed  within  a  particular 
cartilaginous  box. 

Nearly  all  the  Mollusca  have  a  development  of  the  skin  which 
covers  their  body,  and  which  bears  more  or  less  resemblance  to  a 
mantle;  it  is  often  however  narrowed  into  a  simple  disk,  formed  into 
a  pipe,  hollowed  into  a  sac,  or  extended  and  divided  in  the  form 
of  fins. 

The  Naked  Mollusca  are  those  in  which  the  mantle  is  simply 
membranous  or  fleshy;  most  frequently,  however,  one  or  several  la- 
minaB,  of  a  substance  more  or  less  hard,  is  formed  in  its  thickness, 
deposited  in  layers,  and  increasing  in  extent  as  well  as  in  thickness, 
because  the  recent  layers  always  overlap  the  old  ones. 

When  this  substance  remains  concealed  in  the  thickness  of  the 
mantle,  it  is  still  customary  to  style  the  animals  Naked  Mollusca. 
Most  generally,  however,  it  becomes  so  much  developed,  that  the 
contracted  animal  finds  shelter  beneath  it;  it  is  then  termed  a  shelly 
and  the  animal  is  said  to  be  testaceous;  the  epidermis  which  covers 
it  is  thin,  and  sometimes  desiccated. 

The  variety  in  the  form,  colour,  substance  and  brilliancy  of  shells, 
is  infinite;  most  of  them  are  calcareous;  some  are  horny,  but  they 
always  consist  of  matters  deposited  in  layers,  or  exuded  from  the 
skin  under  the  epidermis  like  the  mucous  covering,  nails,  hairs,  horns, 
scales,  and  even  teeth.     The  tissue  of  shells  differs  according  to  the 


MOLLUSC A.  245 

mode  of  this  deposition,  which  is  either  in  parallel  laminse  or  in 
crowded  vertical  filaments. 

All  the  modes  of  mastication  and  deglutition  are  visible  in  the 
Mollusca;  here  the  stomaclis  are  simple,  there  multiple,  and  are 
frequently  provided  with  a  peculiar  armature. 

The  Mollusca  in  general  appear  to  be  animals  that  are  but  slightly 
developed,  possessed  of  but  little  industry,  and  which  are  only  pre- 
served by  their  fecundity  and  vital  tenacity. 


Division  of  the  Mollusca  into  Six  Classes. 

The  body  of  some  resembles  a  sac  open  in  front,  containing  the 
branchiae,  whence  issues  a  well  developed  head  crowned  with  long 
and  strong  fleshy  productions,  by  means  of  which  they  crawl,  and 
seize  various  objects.     These  we  term  the  Cephalopoda. 

That  of  others  is  closed;  the  appendages  of  the  head  are  either 
wanting  or  are  extremely  reduced;  the  principal  organs  of  locomo- 
tion are  two  wings  or  membranous  fins,  situated  on  the  sides  of  the 
neck,  and  which  frequently  support  the  branchial  tissue.  They 
constitute  the  Pteropoda. 

Others  again  crawl  by  means  of  a  fleshy  disk  on  their  belly,  some- 
times, though  rarely,  compressed  into  a  fin,  and  have  almost  always 
a  distinct  head  before.     We  call  these  the  Gasteropoda. 

A  fourth  class  is  composed  of  those  where  the  mouth  remains 
hidden  in  the  bottom  of  the  mantle,  which  also  encloses  the  branchiae 
and  viscera,  and  is  open  either  throughout  its  length,  at  both  ends, 
or  at  one  extremity  only.     Such  are  our  Acephala. 

A  fifth  comprises  those,  which,  also  inclosed  in  a  mantle  and  with- 
out an  apparent  head,  have  fleshy  or  membranous  arms,  furnished 
with  cilia  of  the  same  nature.     We  term  these  Brachiopoda. 

Finally,  there  are  some,' which,  although  similar  to  the  other  Mol- 
lusca in  the  mantle,  branchiae,  &.C.,  differ  from  them  in  numerous 
horny  and  articulated  limbs,  and  in  a  nervous  system  more  nearly 
allied  to  that  of  the  Articulata.  They  will  constitute  our  last  class, 
or  that  of  the  Cirrhopoda. 


246  MOLLUSCA. 


CLASS  I. 
CEPHALOPODA. 

Their  mantle  unites  under  the  body,  forming  a  muscular  sac 
which  envelopes  all  the  viscera.  In  several,  its  sides  are  extended 
into  fleshy  fins.  The  head  projects  from  the  opening  of  the  sac;  it 
is  rounded,  furnished  with  two  large  eyes,  and  crowned  with  longer 
or  shorter  conical  and  fleshy  arms  or  feet,  capable  of  being  flexed 
in  every  direction,  and  extremely  vigorous,  the  surface  of  which  is 
armed  with  suckers  or  cup.?,  which  enable  them  to  adhere  with  great 
tenacity  to  every  body  they  embrace.  These  feet  are  their  instru- 
ments of  prehension,  natation,  and  walking.  They  swim  with  the 
head  backwards,  and  crawl  in  all  directions  with  the  head  beneath 
and  the  body  above. 

The  Cephalopoda  have  two  branchiae  within  the  sac,  one  on  each 
side,  resembling  a  highly  complicated  fern  leaf;  the  great  vena  cava, 
having  arrived  between  them,  divides  into  two  branches,  which  pour 
their  contents  into  two  fleshy  ventricles,  each  of  which  is  placed  at 
the  base  of  the  branchis  on  its  own  side,  and  propels  the  blood  into  it. 

Respiration  is  effected  by  the  water  which  flows  into  the  sac  and 
issues  through  a  funnel  placed  at  its  opening. 

Between  the  base  of  the  feet  we  find  the  mouth  armed  with  two 
stout  horny  jaws  resembling  the  beak  of  a  parrot. 

These  animals  are  remarkable  for  a  peculiar  and  intensely  black 
excretion,  with  which  they  darken  the  surrounding  water  when  they 
wish  to  conceal  themselves.  It  is  produced  by  a  gland,  and  held  in 
reserve  by  a  sac,  variously  situated,  according  to  the  species. 

Their  brain,  which  is  contained  in  a  cartilaginous  cavity  of  the 
head,  gives  off"  a  cord  on  each  side  which  produces  a  large  ganglion 
in  each  orbit,  whence  are  derived  innumerable  optic  filaments;  the 
eye  consists  of  several  membranes,  and  is  covered  by  the  skin  which 
becomes  diaphanous  in  that  particular  spot,  sometimes  forming 
folds  which  supply  the  want  of  eyelids.  The  ear  is  merely  a  slight 
cavity,  on  each  side  near  the  brain,  without  semicircular  canals  or 


CEPHALOPODA.  247 

an  external  Meatus,  where  a  membranous  sac  is  suspended  which 
contains  a  little  stone. 

The  skin  of  these  animals,  of  the  Octopi  particularly,  changes 
colour  in  places,  by  spots,  with  a  rapidity  which  greatly  surpasses 
that  of  the  Chameleon. 

These  animals  are  voracious  and  cruel;  possessed  both  of  agility 
and  numerous  modes  of  seizing  their  prey,  they  destroy  immense 
quantities  of  Fioh  and  Crustacea.  Their  flesh  is  eaten;  their  ink  is 
employed  in  painting,  and  the  Indian,  or  China  ink  is  supposed  to 
be  made  from  it. 

The  Cephalopoda  comprise  but  a  single  order,  which  is  divided 
into  genera,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  shell. 

Those  which  have  no  external  shell,  according  to  Linnaeus,  form- 
ed but  the  single  genus. 

Sefia,  Lin. 
Or  the  Cuttle-fish,  which  is  now  divided  into  a  variety  of  subg'enera^  the  most 
interesting  of  which  are  the  two  following'. 

ABooNArTA,  Lin. 

These  Mollusca  are  always  found  in  a  very  thin  shell,  symmetrically  fluted 
and  spirally  convoluted,  the  last  whorl  so  large  that  it  bears  some  resem- 
blance to  a  galley  of  which  the  spine  is  the  poop.  The  animal  makes  a 
consequent  use  of  it,  and  in  calm  weather  whole  fleets  of  them  may  be  ob- 
served navigating  tlie  surface  of  the  ocean,  employing  six  of  their  tentacula 
as  oars,  and  elevating  the  two  membranous  ones  by  way  of  a  sail.  If  the 
sea  becomes  rough,  or  they  perceive  any  danger,  the  Argonaut  withdraws 
all  its  ai'ms,  concentrates  itself  in  its  shell,  and  descends  to  tlie  bottom. 

Several  species  ai-e  known,  closely  resembling  each  other  botlv  in  the  ani- 
mal and  the  shell,  which  were  united  by  Linnaeus  under  tlie  name  of  ^go- 
nauta  argo,  or  the  Paper  Nautilus. 

Sei'ia,  Lam. 
The  Seplae,  or  Cuttle-fish  properly  so  called,  have  two  long  arms  and  a 
fleshy  fin  extending  along  the  whole  length  of  each  side  of  the  sac.  The 
shell  is  oval,  tliick,  convex,  and  composetl  of  numerous  and  parallel  calca- 
reous laminae,  united  by  thousands  of  httlc  hollow  columns,  running  perpen- 
dicularly from  one  to  tlxe  other.  This  structure  rendering  it  friable,  causes 
it  to  be  employed  for  polishing  various  kinds  of  work;  it  is  also  given  to 
birds  in  aviaries,  for  the  purpose  of  whetting  their  beaks. 

Nautilus,  Lin. 
In  this  genus  Liimseus  united  all  spiral,  symmetrical  and  chambered  shells. 


248  MOLLUSCA. 

that  is  to  say  such  as  are  divided  by  septa  into  several  cavities,'  their  inbst^ 
bitants  he  supposed  to  be  Cephalopoda. 

This  genus  is  now  divided  into  Spirula  and  Nautilus  proper. 

The  Belemnites 

Probably  belong  to  this  family,  but  it  is  impossible  to  ascertain  the  fact,  as 
they  are  only  found  among  fossils;  every  thing,  however,  proves  them  to 
have  been  internal  shells,  thin  and  double,  that  is,  composed  of  two  cones 
united  at  base,  the  inner  one  much  shorter  than  the  other,  and  divided  into 
chambers  by  parallel  septa,  which  are  concave  on  the  side  next  to  the  base. 
A  siphon  extends  from  the  summit  of  the  external  cone  to  that  of  the  in- 
ternal one,  and  continues  thence,  sometimes  along  the  margin  of  the  septa 
and  sometimes  through  their  centre.  The  interval  between  the  two  tes- 
taceous cones  is  filled  with  a  solid  substance  here  composed  of  radiating 
fibres,  and  there  of  self-involving  conical  layers,  the  base  of  each  being  on 
the  margin  of  one  of  the  septa  of  the  inner  cone. 

Of  all  fossils  Belemnites  are  the  most  abundant,  particularly  in  chalk  and 
compact  limestone. 

The  Ammonites, 
Or  the  Cornua-Ammoni,  also  fossil,  are  distinguished  from  the  Nautifi  by 
theu'  septa,  which,  instead  of  being  plane  or  simply  concave,  are  angular 
and  sometimes  undulated,  but  most  frequently  slashed  on  the  edge  like  the 
leaf  of  an  acanthus.  The  smallness  of  their  last  cell  seems  to  indicate  that, 
like  the  Spirula,  they  were  internal  shells.  They  are  very  abundant  in  the 
strata  of  secondary  mountains,  where  they  are  found  varying  from  the  size 
of  a  lentil  to  that  of  a  coach  wheel.  Their  subdivisions  are  based  upon  the 
variation  of  their  volutes  and  siphons. 

The  Nummulites,  Lam. 
Commonly  called  Nummulites,  lenticular  stones,  &c.  are  only  found  among 
fossils,  and  present,  externally,  a  lenticular  figure  without  any  apparent 
opening,  and  a  spiral  cavity  internally,  divided  by  septa  into  numerous  small 
chambers,  but  without  a  siphon.  They  constitute  the  most  universally  dif- 
fused of  all  fossils,  forming  entire  chains  of  calcareous  hills  and  immense 
bodies  of  building  stone. 


PTEROPODA.  249 


CLASS  II. 
PTEROPODA. 

The  Pteropoda,  like  the  Cephalopoda,  swim  in  the  ocean,  but 
being  deprived  of  feet,  can  neither  fix  themselves  to  other  bodies, 
nor  crawl.  Their  organs  of  locomotion  consist  of  fins  placed  like 
wings  on  the  two  sides  of  the  mouth.  But  few  and  small  species 
are  known. 

Clio,  Lin. 
Body  oblong,  membranous,  without  a  mantle;  head  formed  of  two  round- 
ed lobes,  whence  originate  small  tentacula;  two  small  fleshy  lips,  and  a  little 
tongue  on  the  front  of  the  mouth;  the  fins  covered  with  a  vascular  net-work 
which  acts  as  branchix.     Some  authors  consider  them  as  possessing  eyes. 

Clio  borealis,  L.  This  species,  which  is  the  most  celebrated,  is  found  in 
astonishing  numbers  in  the  arctic  seas,  furnishing,  by  its  abundance,  food  for 
the  Whales,  although  each  individual  is  hardly  an  inch  long. 

Cymbulia,  Peron. 
A  cartilaginous  or  gelatinous  envelope  resembling  a  galley,  or  rather  a  sabot 
or  wooden  shoe,  bristling  with  small  points  disposed  in  longitudinal  rows. 
The  animal  has  two  large  wings  composed  of  a  vascular  tissue,  which  are 
its  branchiae  and  fins;  between  them,  on  the  open  side,  is  a  third  and  smaller 
lobe  with  three  points. 

Pneumodermon,  Cuv. 

The  Pneumoderma  begin  to  be  a  little  further  removed  from  the  Clios. 
Their  body  is  oval,  without  a  mantle  and  without  a  shell;  the  branchlse  are 
attached  to  the  surface  and  composed  of  little  laminae  arranged  in  two  or 
three  lines  so  disposed  as  to  form  an  H  on  the  part  opposite  to  the  head. 

LiMACiNA,  Cuv. 

The  body  terminates  in  a  spirally  convoluted  tail,  and  is  lodged  in  a  very 
thin  shell  formed  by  one  whorl  and  a  half,  umbilicated  on  one  side,  and 
flattened  on  the  other.  The  animal  uses  its  shell  as  a  boat,  and  its  wings  as 
oars,  whenever  it  wishes  to  navigate  the  surface  of  the  deep. 

Clio  helicina.     Almost  as  common  on  the  ai'ctic  seas  as  the  Clio  borealis, 
and  is  considered  as  forming  the  chief  source  of  food  for  the  Whale. 
2  G 


250  MOLLUSCA. 

There  are  three  other  genera  in  this  class,  Hyalea,  Cleodora,  and  Pyrgo, 
A  very  small  fossil  shell. 


CLASS  III. 
GASTEROPODA. 

The  Gasteropoda  constitute  a  very  numerous  class  of  the  Mol- 
lusca,  an  idea  of  which  is  afforded  by  the  Slug. 

They  generally  crawl  upon  a  fleshy  disk,  situated  under  the  ab- 
domen, which  sometimes  however  assumes  the  shape  of  a  sulcus,  or 
that  of  a  vertical  lamina.  The  back  is  furnished  with  a  mantle 
which  is  more  or  less  extended,  takes  various  forms,  and  in  the 
greater  number  of  genera,  produces  a  shell.  Their  head,  placed 
anteriorly,  is  more  or  less  visible,  as  it  is  the  more  or  less  involved 
under  the  mantle;  its  tentacula  are  very  small,  situated  above  the 
mouth  and  do  not  surround  it,  varying  in  number  from  two  to  six; 
sometimes  they  are  wanting;  their  function  is  that  of  touch,  or  at 
most  that  of  smell.  The  eyes  are  very  small,  here  adhering  to  the 
head,  and  thereto  the  base,  side,  or  point  of  the  tentaculum;  some- 
times they  are  wanting.  The  position,  structure,  and  nature  of  their 
respiratory  organs  vary,  and  afford  the  means  of  dividing  them  into 
several  familiesj  they  never,  however,  have  more  than  a  single  aortic 
heart,  that  is  to  say,  one  placed  between  the  pulmonary  vein  and 
the  aorta. 

Several  are  entirely  naked;  others  have  merely  a  concealed  shell, 
but  most  of  them  are  furnished  with  one  that  is  large  enough  to  re- 
ceive and  shelter  them. 

The  shell  is  formed  in  the  thickness  of  the  mantle.  Some  of 
them  are  symmetrical  and  consist  of  a  single  piece;  others  are  non- 
symmetrical, which,  in  those  species  where  they  are  very  concave, 
and  where  they  continue  to  grow  for  a  long  time,  become  obliquely 
spiral. 

If  we  figure  to  ourselves  an  oblique  cone,  in  which  other  cones, 
always  wider  in  one  direction  than  in  the  others,  are  successively 


GASTEROPODA.  251 

placed,  it  will  be  easily  seen  that  the  convolution  of  the  whole  takes 
place  on  the  side  which  enlarges  the  least. 

This  part,  on  which  the  cone  is  rolled,  is  termed  the  columella; 
it  is  sometimes  solid,  and  sometimes  hollow.  When  hollow,  its 
aperture  is  called  the  umbilicus. 

The  wliorls  of  the  shell  may  either  remain  in  one  plane,  or  incline 
towards  the  base  of  the  columella. 

In  this  last  case  the  preceding  whorls  rise  above  each  other,  form- 
ing the  spire.,  which  is  so  much  the  more  acute,  as  the  whorls 
descend  more  rapidly,  and  the  less  they  increase  in  width.  These 
shells  with  a  salient  spine  are  said  to  be  turbinated. 

When,  on  the  contrary,  the  whorls  remain  nearly  in  the  same 
place,  and  do  not  envelope  each  other,  the  spine  is  Jlat,  or  even  con- 
cave.    These  shells  are  said  to  be  discoidal. 

When  the  top  of  each  whorl  envelopes  the  preceding  ones,  the 
spire  is  hidden. 

The  part  through  which  the  animal  appears  to  come  out  is  named 
the  aperture. 

When  the  whorls  remain  nearly  in  the  same  plane,  while  the  ani- 
mal crawls,  its  shell  is  vertical,  the  columella  crosswise  on  the 
hind  part  of  its  back,  and  its  head  passes  under  the  edge  of  the 
opening  opposite  to  the  columella. 

When  the  spire  is  salient,  it  inclines  from  the  right  side  in  almost 
every  species;  in  a  very  few  only  does  it  project  from  the  left  when 
they  are  in  motion;  these  are  said  to  be  reversed. 

It  is  observed  that  the  head  is  always  on  the  side  opposite  to  that 
to  which  the  spire  is  directed.  Thus  it  is  usually  on  the  left,  and 
in  the  reversed  on  the  right. 

The  organs  of  respiration,  which  are  always  situated  in  the  last 
whorl  of  the  shell,  receive  the  ambient  element  from  under  its  edge, 
sometimes  because  the  mantle  is  entirely  detached  from  the  body 
along  this  edge,  and  sometimes  because  it  is  perforated  there. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  the  margin  of  the  mantle  is  prolonged 
in  a  canal,  in  order  to  allow  the  animal  to  seek  the  ambient  element 
without  protruding  its  head  and  foot  from  its  shell. 

Most  of  the  aquatic  Gasteropoda,  with  a  spiral  shell,  have  an 
operculum,  a  part  sometimes  horny,  sometimes  calcareous,  attached 
to  the  posterior  part  of  the  foot,  which  closes  the  shell  when  its  oc- 
cupant is  withdrawn  into  it  and  folded  up. 


252  MOLLUSCA. 

Tlieir  organs  of  digestion  vary  as  much  as  those  of  respiration. 

This  class  is  so  numerous  that  we  have  been  compelled  to  divide 
it  into  a  certain  number  of  orders,  which  we  have  founded  upon -the 
position  and  form  of  the  branchiae. 


ORDER  I. 
PULMONEA. 

The  Pulraonea  are  distinguished  from  the  other  Mollusca  by  re- 
spiring elastic  air  through  a  hole  opening  under  the  margin  of  the 
mantle,  and  which  they  dilate  and  contract  at  will;  they  have  no 
branchiae,  but  a  mere  net-work  of  pulmonary  vessels  which  creep 
over  the  parietes  of  the  respiratory  cavity  and  chiefly  on  its  ceiling. 

Some  of  them  are  terrestrial;  others  are  aquatic,  but  are  compelled 
to  visit  the  surface  from  time  to  time  for  the  purpose  of  opening  the 
orifice  of  their  pectoral  cavity,  or  to  respire. 

The  Terrestrial  Pulmonea  have  generally  four  tentacula;  in 
two  or  three  only,  of  a  very  small  size,  the  lower  pair  are  not  to  be 
seen. 

Those  wluch  possess  no  apparent  shell,  form  in  the  Linnaan  system  the 
genus 

LiMAX,  Lin. 
Which  is  now  divided  into  Limax,  Jirion,  Ldma,  Vaginulus,  Testacella,  and 
Parmacella.     These  animals  are  known  by  the  common  name  of  Slugs. 

In  the  terrestrial  Pulmonea  with  complete  and  apparent  shells, 
the  edges  of  the  aperture  in  the  adult  are  usually  tumid. 

Helix,  Lin. 

To  this  genus  Linnteus  referred  all  those  species  in  which  the  aperture  of 
the  shell,  somewhat  encroached  upon  by  the  projection  of  the  penultimate 
whorl,  assumes  a  crescent-like  figure. 

Helix  pomatia,  L. ,  common  in  the  gardens  and  vineyards  of  France,  with 
a  reddish  shell  marked  with  paler  bands,  an  animal  which  in  some  places  is 
considered  a  delicious  article  of  food.  The  genus  is  now  variously  subdi- 
vided.    The  animals  are  what  we  term  Snails. 


GASTEROPODA  PULMONEA.  253 

'  The  Aquatic  Pulmonea  have  but  two  tentacula;  they  are  con- 
tinually compelled  to  rise  to  the  surface  for  the  purpose  of  breath- 
ing, so  that  they  cannot  inhabit  very  deep  water;  they  are  usually 
found  in  fresh  water  or  salt  ponds,  or  at  least  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
sea  coast  and  of  the  mouths  of  rivers.  Some  of  them  have  no  shell, 
such  as  those  of  the  genus  Onchidium. 

The  aquatic  Pulmonea,  with  complete  shells,  were  also  placed 
by  Linnasus  in  his  genera  Helix,  Bulla  and  Voluta,  from  which 
it  has  been  found  necessary  to  separate  them. 

In  the  first  were  comprised  the  two  following  genera,  where  we 
find  the  internal  edge  of  the  aperture  crescent-shaped,  as  in  Helix. 

Planoebis,  Brug. 
The  Planorbes  are  distinguished  from  the  Helices  by  the  slight  increase  of 
the  whorls  of  their  shell,  the  convolutions  of  which  are  nearly  in  one  plane, 
and  because  the  aperture  is  wider  than  it  is  high.  It  contains  an  animal 
with  long,  thin  filiform  tentacula,  at  the  inner  base  of  which  are  the  eyes, 
and  from  the  margin  of  whose  mantle  exudes  a  quantity  of  a  red  fluid,  which 
is  not,  however,  its  blood.     In  stagnant  waters.     The 

LiMNiEus,  Lam. 
Has,  like  a  Bulimus,  an  oblong  spire  and  the  aperture  higher  than  it  is 
wide;  but  the  margin,  like  that  of  a  Succinea,  is  not  reflected,  and  there  is 
a  longitudinal  fold  in  the  columella,  which  runs  obliquely  into  the  cavity. 
The  shell  is  tliin ;  the  animal  has  two  compressed,  broad,  triangular  tentacula, 
near  the  base  of  whose  inner  edge  are  the  eyes. 

They  inhabit  stagnant  waters  in  great  numbers;  they  also  abound  with 
the  Planorbes  in  certain  layers  of  marl  or  calcareous  strata,  which  they  evi- 
dently prove  were  deposited  in  fresh  water. 

Physa,  Drap. 

The  Physx  have  a  shell  very  similar  to  that  of  a  Lymnxus,  but  without  the 
fold  in  the  columella  and  reflected  edge,  and  very  thin.  When  the 
animal  swims  or  crawls,  it  covers  its  shell  with  the  two  notched  lobes  of  its 
mantle,  and  has  two  long,  slender  and  pointed  tentacula,  on  the  greatly  en- 
larged internal  base  of  which  are  the  eyes.     They  inhabit  springs,  &c. 

Auricula,  Lam. 
Differing  from  all  the  preceding  aquatic  Pulmonea  in  the  columella,  which 
is  maiked  with  wide  and  oblique  flutes.     Their  shell  is  oval  or  oblong,  the 
aperture  elevated  as  in  Bulimus,  and  the  margin  tumid. 

CoNovuLus,  Lam. 
Projecting  folds  in  the  columella,  as  in  the  Aui-iculae,  but  the  margin  of  the 


254  MOLLUSCA. 

aperture  is  not  tumid,  and  the  internal  lip  is  finely  striated;  the  general  form 
of  the  shell  is  that  of  a  cone,  of  which  the  spu-e  forms  the  base.  They  in- 
habit the  rivers  of  the  Antilles. 


ORDER  II. 

NUDIBRANCHIATA. 

The  Nudibranchiata  have  no  shell  whatever;  neither  are  they  fur- 
nished with  a  pulmonary  cavity,  their  branchiae  being  exposed  on 
some  part  of  the  back.  They  are  all  marine  animals,  frequently 
swimming  in  a  reversed  position  with  the  foot  on  the  surface,  con- 
cave like  a  batteau,  and  employing  the  margin  of  their  mantle  and 
their  tentacula  as  oars.     In  the 

DoEis,  Cuv. 
The  branchiae  are  arranged  in  a  circle  round  an  opening  in  the  posterior 
part  of  the  back,  under  the  form  of  little  arbusculae,  the  whole  resembling 
a  sort  of  flower.  The  mouth  Is  a  small  proboscis,  situated  under  the  ante- 
rior margin  of  the  mantle,  and  furnished  with  two  little  conical  tentacula. 
The  species  are  numerous,  and  some  of  them  large.  They  are  found  in 
every  sea,  where  their  ova,  resembling  gelatinous  bands,  are  diffused  over 
stones,  sea-weeds,  &c. 

PiocAMocEEos,  Leuck. 
The  anterior  margin  of  their  mantie  is  ornamented  with  numerous  branched 
tentacula. 

POLYCEBA,  Cuv. 
The  branchijc,  as  in  Doris,  on  the  hind  part  of  the  body,  but  more  simple, 
and  followed  by  two  membranous  laminae,  which  cover  them  in  moments  of 
danger;  anterior  to  the  claviform  tentacula,  similai*  to  those  in  Doris,  are 
four,  and  sometimes  six  others,  simply  pointed. 

Tkitonia,  Cuv. 
The  body  and  superior  tentacula,  as  in  Doris;  but  the  orifices  through  which 
the  peculiar  liquid  is  excreted,  are  on  the  right:  the  branchiae,  which  re- 
semble little  trees,  are  arranged  along  the  sides  of  the  back,  and  the  mouth, 
provided  with  broad  membranous  lips,  is  armed  inside  with  two  homy  and 
trenchant  lateral  jaws,  which  may  be  compared  to  a  pair  of  sheep-shears. 


GASTEROPODA  NUDIBRANCHIATA.  255 

Thethys,  Lin. 

Two  rows  of  branchiae  resembling-  branching  tufts  along  the  bact,  and  a  very 
large  membranous  and  fringed  veil  on  the  head,  which  shortens  as  it  curves 
under  the  mouth:  this  latter  is  a  membranous  proboscis  without  jaws;  on  the 
base  of  tlie  veil  are  two  compressed  tentacula,  from  whose  margin  projects 
a  small  conical  point. 

T.  fimbria,  L.     Grey,  spotted  with  white;  a  beautiful  species  from  the 
Mediterranean. 

ScYLLiEA,  Lin. 

Body  compressed;  the  foot  narrow  and  marked  with  a  furrow  which  enables 
it  to  clasp  the  stems  of  the  fuci;  no  veil;  the  mouth  resembling  a  little  pro- 
boscis; orifices  as  in  Thethj'^s;  tlie  compressed  tentacula  terminated  by  a 
cavity,  from  which  issues  a  little  uneven  point,  and  two  pairs  of  membranous 
crests  on  the  back,  the  internal  surface  of  which  is  furnished  with  pencils 
of  filaments,  which  are  the  branchise.  The  middle  of  the  stomach  is  invested 
with  a  fleshy  ring,  internally  armed  with  horny  and  trenchant  laminae  like 
knives. 

S.pelagka,  L.     Common  on  all  the  floating  fucus  of  almost  every  sea. 

Glaucus,  Forster. 

Body  elongated;  four  very  small  conical  tentacula,  and  on  each  side  three 
branchiae,  each  of  which  are  formed  of  long  slips  arranged  like  the  sticks 
of  a  fan,  which  also  aid  them  in  swimming.  They  are  beautifid  little  ani- 
mals that  inhabit  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Atlantic,  prettily  coloured  with 
blue  and  nacre;  they  swim  on  their  back  with  great  swiftness. 
The  remaining  genera  of  this  order  are  Laniogerus,  Eolidia,  CavoUna,  &c. 


ORDER  III. 

INFEROBRANCHLA.TA. 

The  Inferobranchiata  have  nearly  the  same  form  and  organiza- 
tion observed  in  Doris  and  Tritonia,  but  their  branchiae,  instead  of 
being  placed  on  the  back,  resemble  two  long  series  of  laminas,  situ- 
ated on  the  two  sides  of  the  body,  under  the  projecting  margin  of 
the  mantle. 

Phtllidia,  Cuv. 
The  mantle  naked,  usually  coriaceous,  and  without  any  shell;  the  mouth,  a 
small  proboscis,  eachside  of  which  is  furnished  with  a  tentaculum;  two  others 


256  MOLLUSC A. 

project  from  above  two  small  cavities  in  the  mantle.  Several  species  inha- 
bit the  Indian  Ocean. 

DiPHYLLIDIA,  CuV. 

The  branchiae  similar  to  those  of  the  Pliyllidije,  but  the  posterior  part  of  the 
mantle  more  pointed;  on  each  side  of  the  semicircular  head  a  pointed  tenta- 
culum  and  a  slight  tubercle. 


ORDER  IV. 

TECTIBRANCHIATA. 

The  branchias  along  the  right  side  or  on  the  back,  composed  of 
laminas  more  or  less  divided,  but  not  symmetrical;  they  are  more 
or  less  covered  by  the  mantle,  in  which  a  small  shell  is  generally 
contained.  They  approach  the  Pectinibranchiata  in  the  form  of 
the  organs  of  respiration,  and  like  them  inhabit  the  Ocean. 

Pleurobranchus,  Cuv. 
The  body  equally  overlapped  by  the  mantle  and  by  the  foot,  as  if  it  were 
between  two  shields.  In  some  species  a  httle,  oval,  calcareous  lamina  is 
contained  in  the  mantle,  and  a  horny  one  in  that  of  others;  the  mantle  is 
emarginated  above  the  head.  The  branchiae  are  attached  along  the  right 
side  in  the  furrow,  between  the  mantle  and  the  foot,  forming  a  series  of 
pyramids  divided  into  triangular  laminulae.  The  mouth,  a  small  proboscis, 
is  surmounted  by  an  emarginated  lip  and  by  two  tubular  and  cleft  tentacula. 
Various  species  inhabit  both  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Atlantic,  some 
of  which  are  large  and  marked  with  the  most  beautiful  colours. 

Pletjrobranch^a,  Meckel. 
The  branchix  situated  as  in  Pleurobranchus;  but  the  foot  projects  but  little, 
and  on  the  fore  part  of  the  former  are  four  short,  distant  tentacula,  forming 
a  square  that  reminds  the  observer  of  the  anterior  disk  of  the  Acerae.    There 
is  no  vestige  of  a  shell. 

Pleurob.  Meckelii.    The  only  species  known;  from  the  Mediterranean. 

Aplysia,  Lin. 
The  margin  of  the  foot  turned  up  into  flexible  crests,  surrounding  the  back, 
and  even  susceptible  of  being  reflected  over  it;  the  head  supported  by  a 
neck  more  or  less  long;  two  superior  tentacula  excavated  like  the  ears  of  a 
quadruped,  with  two  flattened  ones  on  the  edge  of  the  lower  Up;  the  eyes 


GASTEROPODA  TECTIBRANCHIATA.       257 

above  the  former.  The  branchiae  are  on  the  back,  and  consist  of  highly 
complicated  lamellse  attached  to  a  broad  membranous  pedicle,  covered  by 
a  small  membranous  mantle,  in  tlie  thickness  of  which  is  a  flat  and  horny 
shell.  A  hmpid  humour,  secreted  by  a  particular  gland,  and  which  in  cer- 
tain species  is  said  to  be  extremely  acx'id,  is  exuded  through  an  orifice  be- 
low on  the  right,  and  from  the  edges  of  the  mantle  oozes  an  abundant  liquid 
of  a  deep  purple  colour,  with  which,  when  in  danger,  the  animal  tinges 
the  water  for  a  considerable  extent.  The  ova  are  deposited  in  a  kind  of 
long,  interlaced  glairy  net  work,  of  extreme  tenuity.  In  the  seas  of  Europe 
we  have  the 

Apl.  fasciata,  black,  margined  with  lateral  red  crests,  one  of  the  large 
species;  and  jlpl.  punctata,  Cuv.,  lilac,  sprinkled  with  greenish  points. 

DoLABELLA,  Lam. 
The  Dolabellae  only  differ  from  Aplysise  in  the  position  of  the  branchiae  and 
their  surrounding  envelope;  they  are  at  the  posterior  extremity  of  the  body, 
which  resembles  a  ti-uncated  cone.     They  are  found  m  the  Mediterranean 
and  in  the  Indian  Ocean. 

NOTABCHTJS,  Cuv. 
The  lateral  crests  united  and  covering  the  back,  a  longitudinal  emarginatlon 
excepted,  that  leads  to  the  branchiae,  v/hich  have  no  mantle  to  cover  them, 
but  are  otherwise  like  those  of  the  Aplysise;  the  rest  of  their  organization  is 
always  the  same. 

Akeba,  Muller. 
The  branchiae  covered  as  in  the  preceding  genera,  but  their  tentacula  are  so 
shortened,  widened  and  separated,  that  they  seem  to  be  totally  wanting,  or 
rather  to  form  a  large,  fleshy,  and  nearly  rectangular  shield,  under  which 
are  the  eyes.  The  shell,  of  such  as  have  any,  is  more  or  less  convoluted, 
but  with  httle  obUquity,  and  is  without  a  projecting  spire,  emarginatlon,  or 
canal;  the  columella,  projecting  convexly,  gives  a  crescent-like  figure  to  the 
aperture,  the  part  opposite  to  the  spire  being  always  the  broadest  and  most 
rounded. 

M.  de  Lamarck  names  those  in  which  the  shell  is  concealed  in  the  thick- 
ness of  the  mantle,  Buli.ea.  It  has  but  very  few  whorls,  and  the  animal  is 
much  too  large  to  be  drawn  into  it. 

Bullxa  aperta,  Lam.  The  animal  is  whitish,  and  about  an  inch  long;  the 
fleshy  shield,  formed  by  the  vestiges  of  its  tentacula,  the  lateral  swellings 
of  its  foot,  and  the  mantle  occupied  by  the  shell,  seem  to  divide  its  upper 
surface  into  four  lobes.  Its  thin,  white,  semi-diaphanous  shell,  is  nearly  all 
aperture,  and  its  gizzard  is  ai'med  with  three  very  thick  rhomboidal  pieces 
of  bone.  It  is  found  in  almost  every  sea,  where  it  lives  on  oozy  bottoms. 
The 

2  H 


258  MOLLUSCA. 

Gastropteron,  Meek. 

Appears  to  be  an  Akera,  the  margin  of  whose  foot  is  extended  into  broad 
wings,  used  in  natation,  which  it  effects  on  its  back.  It  has  no  shell,  nor 
has  the  stomach  any  armature;  a  slight  fold  of  skin  is  the  only  vestige  of  a 
branchial  operculum  that  is  perceptible. 

Gastroplax,  Blainv. — Umbrella,  Lam. 
The  animal  is  large  and  circular,  the  foot  projects  considerably  beyond  the 
mantle,  and  its  upper  surface  is  studded  with  tubercles.  The  viscera  are  in 
a  round,  superior,  and  central  part.  The  mantle  is  only  visible  by  its 
slightly  projecting  and  trenchant  edges,  along  the  whole  of  the  frOnt  and  of 
the  right  side.  The  lamellated  pyramidal  branchix,  like  those  of  Pleuro- 
branchus,  are  under  this  slight  margin.  Under  this  same  margin  and  for- 
wards, are  two  tentacula,  longitudinally  cleft,  as  in  Pleurobranchus,  at  whose 
internal  base  are  the  eyes;  between  them  is  a  kind  of  proboscis.  There  is 
a  large  concave  space  in  the  anterior  margin  of  the  foot,  the  edges  of  which 
are  susceptible  of  being  drawn  up  like  the  mouth  of  a  purse,  and  at  the 
bottom  of  which  is  a  tubercle  pierced  by  an  orifice,  which  perhaps  is 
the  mouth,  and  surmounted  by  a  fringed  membrane.  The  inferior  surface 
of  the  foot  is  smooth,  and  serves  the  animal  to  crawl  on,  as  in  the  other 
Gasteropoda. 

The  shell  is  stony,  flat,  irregularly  rounded,  thickest  in  the  middle,  with 
trenchant  edges,  and  marked  with  slightly  concentric  striae. 


ORDER  V. 

HETEROPODA,  Lam. 

The  Heteropoda  are  distinguished  by  their  foot,  which,  instead  of 
forming  a  horizontal  disk,  is  compressed  into  a  vertical  muscular 
lamina,  which  they  use  as  a  fin,  and  on  the  edge  of  which,  in  seve- 
ral species,  is  a  dilatation  forming  a  hollow  cone,  that  represents  the 
disk  of  the  other  orders.  Their  branchiee,  composed  ofplumiform 
lobes,  are  situated  on  the  hind  part  of  the  back,  directed  forwards, 
and  immediately  in  their  rear  are  the  heart  and  a  small  liver,  with 
part  of  the  viscera.  Their  body,  a  gelatinous  and  transparent  sub- 
stance lined  with  a  muscular  layer,  is  elongated  and  usually  termi- 
nated by  a  compressed  tail.  There  is  a  muscular  mass  belonging 
to  the  mouth,  and  a  tongue  furnished  with  little  hooks.  They 
usually  swim  on  their  back  with  the  foot  upwards.     They  have  the 


GASTEROPODA  HETEROPODA.         259 

faculty  of  distending  their  body  by  filling  it  with  water,  in  a  way 
not  well  understood.     Forskahl  comprised  them  all  in  his  genus 

Pterotrachea, 

Which  is  now  divided  into  Carinaria,  Atlanta,  Flrola,  Timorienna,  Mono- 
phora,  PhylUroe.  The  Argonauta  vitrea  of  authors  must  be  the  shell  of  a 
Carinaria,  but  the  animal  is  not  yet  known. 


ORDER  VI. 
PECTINIBRANCHIATA. 

This  order  forms,  beyond  all  comparison,  the  most  numerous  divi- 
sion, inasmuch  as  it  comprises  the  whole  of  the  spiral  univalves,  and 
several  that  are  simply  conical.  Their  branchm  composed  of  nu- 
merous lamellae  or  strips  laid  parallel  with  each  other,  like  the  teeth 
of  a  comb,  are  attached  on  one,  two,  or  three  lines,  according  to 
the  genus,  to  the  ceiling  of  the  pulmonary  cavity,  which  occupies 
the  last  whorl  of  the  shell,  and  which  has  a  large  opening  between 
the  edge  of  the  mantle  and  the  body. 

In  two  genera  only,  Cyclostoma  and  Helicina,  do  we  find,  instead 
of  branchiae,  a  vascular  net-work,  covering  the  ceiling  of  a  cavity, 
that  is  otherwise  similar;  they  are  the  only  ones  that  respire  the  na- 
tural air;  all  the  others  respire  water. 

All  the  Pectinibranchiata  have  two  tentacula  and  two  eyes,  some- 
times placed  on  particular  pedicles,  and  a  mouth  resembling  a  more 
or  less  elongated  proboscis. 

Their  tongue  is  armed  with  little  hooks,  and  by  slow  and  repeated 
rubbing  acts  upon  the  hardest  bodies. 

The  greatest  difference  in  these  animals  consists  in  the  presence 
or  absence  of  the  little  canal  formed  by  a  prolongation  of  the  edge 
of  the  pulmonary  cavity  of  the  left  side,  and  which  passes  through  a 
similar  canal  or  emargination  in  the  shell,  to  enable  the  animal  to 
breathe  without  leaving  its  shelter.  There  is  also  this  distinction 
between  the  genera — some  of  them  have  no  operculum;  the  species 
differ  from  each  other  by  the  filaments,  fringes,  and  other  ornaments 
of  the  head,  foot,  or  mantle. 

These  Mollusca  are  arranged  in  several  families  according  to  the 


260  MOLLUSCA. 

form  of  their  shell,  which  appears  to  bear  a  constant  relation  to 
that  of  the  animal. 


FAMILY  I. 

TROCHOIDA. 

This  family  is  known  by  the  shell,  the  aperture  of  which  is  entire, 
without  an  emargination  or  canal  for  a  siphon  of  the  mantle,  as  the 
animal  has  none,  and  is  furnished  with  an  operculum  or  some  organ 
in  place  of  it. 

Teochus,  Lin. 
The  external  margin  of  the  angular  aperture  approaching  more  or  less  to 
a  perfect  quadrangular  figure,  and  in  an  oblique  plane,  with  respect  to  the 
axis  of  the  shell,  because  the  part  of  the  margin  next  to  the  spine  projects 
more  than  the  rest.  Most  of  these  animals  have  three  filaments  on  each 
edge  of  the  mantle,  orat  least  some  appendages  to  the  sides  of  the  feet.    The 

SoiAEiuar,  Lam. 
Is  distinguished  from  all  other  Trochi  by  a  very  broad  conical  spire,  at 
the  base  of  which  is  an  extremely  wide  umbilicus,  in  which  may  be  seen 
the  internal  edges  of  aU  the  whorls,  marked  by  a  crenated  cord. 

EvoMPHAius,  Sowerby. 
Fossil  shells  resembling  a  Solarium,  but  wanting  the  dentations  on  the 
internal  whorls  of  the  umbilicus.     The  genus 

TuEBo,  Lin. 
Comprehends  all  the  species  with  a  completely  and  regularly  turbinated 
shell,  and  a  perfectly  round  aperture.     Close  observation  has  caused  them 
to  be  greatly  subdivided. 

These  subdivisions  are  Delphinula,  Pleurotoma,  Turritella,  Scalaria  and 
Cyclostoma.  The  last  is  terrestrial  and  found  under  moss  and  stones  in 
woods.     The  Valvata,  another  subgenus,  is  found  in  stagnant  water. 

It  is  here  that  we  must  place  the  completely  aquatic  shells,  or 
those  respiring  by  branchias,  which  belong  to  the  old  genus  Helix; 
i.  e.,  those  in  which  the  penultimate  whorl  forms,  as  in  the  Helices, 
Lymnaiae,  &c.,  a  depression  which  gives  the  aperture  more  or  less 
of  the  figure  of  a  crescent. 

The  three  first  genera  are  still  closely  allied  to  Turbo. 


GASTEROPODA  PECTINIBRANCHIATA.  261 

Paludina,  Lam. 
This  genus  has  lately  been  separated  from  the  Cyclostomae,  because  there 
is  no  ridg-e  round  the  aperture  of  the  shell;  because  there  is  a  small  angle 
to  that  aperture  as  well  as  to  the  operculum;  and  finally,  because  the  ani- 
mal, being  provided  with  branchiae,  inhabits  the  water,  like  all  other  genera 
of  this  family.  It  has  a  very  short  snout  and  two  pointed  tentacula;  eyes  at 
the  external  base  of  the  latter,  but  on  no  particular  pedicle,  and  a  small 
membranous  wing  on  each  side  of  the  fore  part  of  the  body.  The  anterior 
edge  of  the  foot  is  double,  and  the  wing  of  the  right  side  forms  a  little  ca- 
nal which  introduces  water  into  the  respiratory  cavity,  the  incipient  indica- 
tion of  the  siphon  in  the  following  family. 

The  Ocean  produces  some  shells  which  only  differ  from  the  Paludinse  in 
being  thick.     They  form  the 

LiTTOEiNA,  Feruss. 
Of  which  the  common  species,  Le  Vigneau — Turbo  littoreus,  L.,  abounds 
on  the  coast  of  France,  where  it  is  eaten .     The  shell  is  round,  brown,  and 
longitudinally  streaked  with  blackish.     The 

Phasianella,  Lam. 

An  oblong  or  pointed  shell,  similar  to  that  of  several  Bulimi  and  Lymnacae; 
the  aperture  also  higher  than  it  is  wide,  and  furnished  with  a  strong  oper- 
culum; base  of  the  columella  sensibly  flattened,  but  no  umbilicus. 

They  inhabit  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  are  much  sought  for  by  collectors  on 
account  of  the  beauty  of  their  colours.  The  animal  is  provided  with  two 
long  tentacula,  with  eyes  placed  on  twotubercles  at  their  external  base,  and 
with  double  lips  that  are  emarginated  and  fringed,  as  well  as  the  wings, 
each  of  which  has  three  filaments. 

Ampxjllaria,  Lam. 
A  round,  ventricose  shell,  with  a  short  spire,  as  in  most  of  the  Helices;  the 
aperture  higher  than  it  is  wide,  and  provided  with  an  operculum;  the  colu- 
mella umbilicated. 

They  inhabit  the  fresh  or  brackish  waters  of  hot  countries.  The  animal 
has  long  tentacula,  and  eyes  placed  on  pedicles  at  their  base. 

HELiciurA,  Lam. 
Judging  by  the  shell,  the  Helicinae  are  Ampullariae  in  which  the  margin 
of  the  aperture  is  reflected. 

Melania,  Lam. 
A  thicker  shell;  the  aperture,  higher  than  it  is  wide,  enlarges  opposite  to 
the  spire;  the  columella  without  plicae  or  umbilicus;  length  of  the  spire  very 
various. 
The  Melaniac  inhabit  rivers,  but  are  not  found  in  France ;  the  animal  has 


262  MOLLUSCA. 

long  tentacula,  the  eyes  being  on  their  external  side,  and  at  about  the  third 
of  their  length. 

ToENATELLA.,  Lam. 
The  shell  is  elliptical,  the  spire  but  slightly  salient,  the  aperture  lengthened 
into  a  crescent  and  widened  below,  and  the  base  of  the  columella  marked 
by  one  or  two  large  plica  or  oblique  callosities. 

Pyramidella,  Lam. 
The  spire  is  turreted,  the  aperture  crescent-Hke  and  wide,  and  the  base  of 
the  columella  obliquely  contorted  and  marked  with  sharp  spiral  plicse. 

Janthina,  Lam. 
The  form  of  the  animal  separates  the  Janthinae  from  all  the  preceding 
genera.  Their  shell,  however,  is  similar  to  that  of  the  terrestrial  Limaces, 
the  columellar  margin  being  also  indented,  but  slightly  angular  at  the  ex- 
ternal edge,  and  the  columella  somewhat  extended  beyond  the  half  oval, 
which,  without  this  prolongation,  would  be  formed  by  that  edge. 

The  animal  has  no  operculum,  but  the  under  sui-face  of  its  foot  is  furnish- 
ed with  a  vesicular  organ  resembling  a  bubble  of  foam,  but  composed  of  a 
solid  substance,  which  prevents  it  from  crawling,  but  allows  it  to  float  on 
the  surface  of  the  water.  The  head,  a  cylindrical  proboscis,  terminated  by 
a  vertically  cleft  mouth,  and  armed  with  little  hooks,  has  a  bifui-cated  tenta- 
culum  on  each  side. 

The  common  species.  Helix  janthina,  L.,  has  a  pretty  violet  shell,  and  is 
very  abundant  in  the  Mediterranean.  When  the  animal  is  touched,  it  dif- 
fuses a  thick  fluid  of  a  deep  violet  colour  that  dyes  the  surrounding  water. 

Nerita,  Lin. 

The  columella  of  the  Neritse  being  in  a  straight  line,  renders  the  aperture 
semicircular  or  semi-elliptical.  This  aperture  is  generally  large  in  com- 
parison with  the  shell,  but  is  always  furnished  with  an  operculum  which 
completely  closes  it.  The  spire  is  almost  effaced,  and  the  shell  semi-glo- 
bular.   The  genus  now  forms  several  subdivisions. 


FAMILY  II. 

CAPULOIDA. 

Recent  researches  have  convinced  us  that  it  is  to  the  Trochoida 
that  we  must  approximate  this  family,  which  contains  five  genera, 
four  of  which  are  taken  from  the  Patellae.  They  all  have  a  widely 
opened,  scarcely  turbinated  shell,  with  neither  operculum,  emargi- 


GASTEROPODA  PECTINIBRANCHIATA.  263 

nation  nor  syphon;  the  animal  resembles  the  other  Pectinibranchi- 
ata.  There  is  but  one  branchial  comb  transversely  arranged  on  the 
roof  of  the  cavity,  and  its  filaments  are  frequently  very  long. 

PiLEOpsis,  Lam. 

A  conical  shell  with  a  recurved  and  spiral  summit,  which  has  long'  caused 
it  to  be  placed  among  the  Patellx;  the  bi"anchise  are  in  one  range  under 
the  anterior  margin  of  the  branchial  cavity;  the  proboscis  is  long,  and  there 
is  a  closely  plaited  membranous  veil  under  the  neck;  the  eyes  are  at  the  ex- 
ternal base  of  the  conical  tentacula.     The 

Hii'PONYX,  Defr. 

Would  appear  from  the  shell  to  be  a  fossil  Pileopsis,  very  remarkable,  how- 
ever, for  a  bed,  formed  of  calcareous  matter,  on  which  it  rests,  and  which 
probably  exuded  fi'om  the  foot  of  the  animal. 

Crepidula,  Lam. 
The  shell  oval,  with  an  obtuse  horizontal  point,  directed  obliquely  backwards 
and  laterally,  the  aperture  forming  the  base  of  the  shell,  which  is  half  closed 
beneath  and  behind  by  a  horizontal  plate.  The  abdominal  sac  which  con- 
tains the  viscera  is  on  this  plate,  the  foot  beneath,  and  the  head  and  branchiae 
forwards.  The  latter  consists  of  a  range  of  long  filaments  attached  under 
the  anterior  margin  of  the  branchial  cavity.  The  eyes  are  at  the  external 
base  of  two  conical  tentacula.     The  genus 

PiLEOLcs,  Sowerby, 
Appears  to  consist  of  Crepidulae  in  which  the  transverse  plate  occupies  half 
the  aperture;  their  shell,  however,  is  more  like  that  of  a  Patella.     They  are 
only  found  fossil. 

Navicella,  Lam. 
The  shell  resembles  a  Crepidula,  except  that  the  summitis  symmetrical  and 
laid  on  the  posterior  margin,  and  that  the  horizontal  plate  is  less  salient. 
The  animal  is  also  provided  with  an  additional,  irregularly  shaped,  testaceous 
plate,  horizontally  connected  with  the  superior  surface  of  the  muscular  disk 
of  its  foot,  and  covered  by  the  abdominal  sac,  which  it  partially  supports. 
It  is  probably  analogous  to  an  operculum,  but  does  not  exercise  its  functions, 
being  in  a  measure  situated  internally.  The  animal  has  long  tentacula,  at 
whose  external  base  are  pedicles  which  support  the  eyes.  They  inhabit 
the  rivers  of  hot  countries.     In  the 

Calyptr^a,  Lani. 

We  observe  a  conical  shell,  in  the  hollow  of  which  is  a  little  lamina  that 
projects  inwards,  resembling  the  commencement  of  a  columella,  and  that 


264  MOLLUSCA. 

interposes  itself  between  a  fold  of  the  abdominal  sac.     The  branchiae  are 
composed  of  a  range  of  numerous  filaments,  long  and  slender,  like  hairs. 

SiPiiONARiA,  Sowerby. 
The  shell  of  the  Siphonarise,  which  have  been  recently  separated  from  the 
Patellae,  at  the  first  glance  seems  very  similar  to  a  flattened  Patella,  with 
radiating  sulci;  but  its  margin  projects  ratlier  more  on  the  right  side,  and  it 
is  excavated  beneath  by  a  slight  furrow,  which  terminates  at  this  promi- 
nence of  the  margin,  to  which  there  is  a  corresponding  lateral  hole  in  the 
mantle,  for  the  introduction  of  water  into  the  branchial  cavity,  placed  on 
the  back,  that  is  closed  on  every  other  point.  The  respiratory  organ  con- 
sists of  a  few  small  lamellse,  arranged  in  one  transverse  line  on  the  roof  of 
that  cavity;  the  tentacula  seem  to  be  wanting,  the  head  being  merely  fur- 
lushed  with  a  narrow  veil. 

SiGARETus,  Adans. 
The  shell  is  flattened,  its  aperture  ample  and  round,  and  the  spire  very 
moderate,  its  whorls  rapidly  enlarging  and  seen  within,  but  concealed  dur- 
ing the  life  of  the  animal  in  the  thickness  of  a  fungous  shield,  which  projects 
considerably  beyond  it,  as  well  as  tlie  foot,  and  which  is  the  true  mantle. 
Before  this  mantle  are  an  emargination  and  a  semi-canal,  which  serves  to 
conduct  water  into  the  branchial  cavity,  and  which  form  the  passage  to  the 
following  family,  but  of  which  there  are  no  impressions  on  the  shell.  The 
tentacula  are  conical,  with  the  eyes  at  their  external  base. 

Cryptostoma,  Blainv. 
The  shell,  resembling  that  of  a  Sigaretus,  with  the  head  and  abdomen, 
which  it  covers,  supported  by  a  foot  four  times  its  size,  cut  square  behind, 
and  forming  before  a  fleshy,  oblong  bundle  that  constitutes  nearly  one  half 
of  its  mass.  The  animal  has  a  flat  head,  two  tentacula  and  a  broad  bran- 
chial comb  on  the  roof  of  its  dorsal  cavity. 


FAMILY  III. 

BUCCINOIDA. 

This  family  has  a  spiral  shell,  in  the  aperture  of  which,  near  the  • 
extremity  of  the  columella,  is  an  emargination  or  a  canal  for  trans- 
mitting the  siphon  or  tube,  whicli  is  itself  but  an  elongated  fold  of 
the  mantle.  The  greater  or  less  lengtli  of  the  canal,  when  there  is 
one,  the  size  of  the  aperture,  and  the  form  of  the  columella,  furnish 
the  grounds  of  its  division  into  genera,  which  may  be  variously 
grouped. 


GASTEROPODA  PECTINIBRANCHIATA.  265 

CoNus,  Lin. 
So  called  from  the  conical  shape  of  tlie  shell ;  the  sph*e,  either  perfectly  flat, 
or  but  slightly  salient,  forms  the  base  of  the  cone,  the  apex  being  at  the 
opposite  extremity;  the  aperture  is  narrow,  rectilinear,  or  nearly  so,  extend- 
ing from  one  end  to  the  otlier  without  enlargement  or  fold,  either  on  its 
edgeoron  the  columella.  The  thinness  of  the  animal  is  proportioned  to 
the  narrowness  of  the  aperture  through  which  it  issues;  its  tentacula  and 
proboscis  are  highly  protractile;  the  eyes  are  placed  on  the  outer  side  of  the 
former,  and  near  the  point;  the  operculum,  situated  obliquely  on  the  hind 
part  of  the  foot,  is  too  narrow  and  short  to  close  the  whole  of  the  aperture. 
The  shells  of  this  genus,  being  usually  ornamented  with  the  most  beauti- 
ful colours,  are  very  common  in  cabinets.  The  seas  of  Europe  produce 
very  few. 

CypejEA,  Lin. 
The  spire  projecting  but  little,  and  the  aperture  narrow  and  extending  from 
one  extremity  to  the  other;  but  the  shell,  which  is  protuberant  in  the  mid- 
dle, and  almost  equally  narrowed  at  both  ends,  forms  an  oval,  and  tlie, 
aperture  in  the  adult  animal  is  transversely  wrinkled  on  each  side.  The 
mantle  is  sufficiently  ample  to  fold  over  and  envelope  the  shell,  which  at  a 
certain  age  it  covers  with  a  layer  of  another  colour.  The  animal  has 
moderate  tentacula,  with  the  eyes  at  their  extei'nal  base,  and  a  thin  foot 
without  an  operculum. 

The  coloui-s  of  these  shells,  also,  are  exti-emely  beautiful;  they  are  ex- 
tremely common  in  cabinets,  though  with  very  few  exceptions  they  aU  in- 
habit the  seas  of  tropical  countries. 

OvuLA,  Brug. 
The  shell  is  oval,  and  the  aperture  narrow  and  long,  as  in  Cypraea,  but  with- 
out plicae  on  the  side  next  to  the  columella;  the  spire  is  concealed,  and  the 
two  ends  of  the  aperture  equally  emarginated,  or  equally  prolonged  in  a 
canal.  The  animal  has  a  broad  foot,  an  extended  mantle  which  partly  folds 
over  the  shell,  a  moderate  and  obtuse  snout,  and  two  long  tentacula,  on 
which,  at  about  the  third  of  their  length,  ai-e  the  eyes, 

Teeebellum,  Lam. 
An  oblong  shell,  with  a  narrow  aperture,  without  plicae  or  wrinkles,  and  in- 
creasing regularly  in  width  to  the  end  opposite  the  spire,  which  is  more  or 
less  salient,  according  to  the  species.     The  animal  is  not  known.     The 

VoLUTA,  Lin. 
Varies  as  to  the  form  of  the  shell  and  that  of  the  aperture,  but  is  recognized 
by  the  emargination  without  a  canal  which  terminates  it,  and  by  the  salient 
and  oblique  phcae  of  the  columella.     From  this  genus  Brugieres  first  separa- 
ted the 

2  I 


266  MOLLUSCA. 

Omva,  Brug., 

So  named  from  the  oblong  and  elliptical  shape  of  the  shell,  the  aperture 
of  which  is  narrow,  long  and  emarginated  opposite  to  the  spire,  which  is 
short;  the  plicae  of  the  columella  are  numerous,  and  resemble  stria:;  the 
whorls  are  sulciform.     These  shells  are  quite  as  beautiful  as  tlie  Cyprxae. 

The  animal  has  a  large  foot,  the  anterior  part  of  which  (before  the  head) 
is  separated  by  an  incision  on  each  side;  its  tentacula  are  slender,  and  the 
eyes  are  on  their  side  ^about  the  middle  of  their  length.  The  proboscis 
and  siphon  are  tolerably  long;  but  it  has  no  operculum. 

The  remainder  of  the  genus  Voluta  was  afterwards  divided  into  five,  by 
M.  de  Lamarck.  They  are  VoiVAaiA,  Voluta,  Mabcikelxa,  Mitba  and 
Cavcei-laiiia. 

BucciNUM,  Lin. 

This  genus  comprises  all  the  shells  furnished  with  an  emargination  or  a 
short  canal  inflected  to  the  left,  and  in  which  the  columella  is  destitute  of 
plicze. 

Brugieres  has  divided  them  into  the  four  genei-a  of  Buccinum,  Purpura, 
Cassis,  and  Terebra,  part  of  which  have  been  again  subdivided  by  Messrs 
de  Lamarck  and  Montfort.    The 

BucciNDM,  Brug. 
Includes  the  emarginated  shells  without  any  canal,  whose  general  form, 
as  well  as  that  of  the  aperture,  is  oval.  The  animals,  all  such  as  are  known, 
are  deprived  of  the  veil  on  the  head,  butarefurnished  with  a  proboscis,  two 
separated  tentacula,  on  the  external  side  of  which  are  the  eyes,  and  a  horny 
operculum.    Their  siphon  extends  out  of  the  shell. 

Nassa,  Lam. 
The  side  of  the  columella  is  covered  by  a  more  or  less  broad  and  thick 
plate,  and  the  emargination  is  deep,  but  without  a  canal.     The  animal  re- 
sembles that  of  a  true  Buccinum,  and  there  are  gradual  transitions  among 
the  shells,  from  one  subgenus  to  the  other. 

Ebuhka,  Lam. 
A  smooth  shell  without  a  plicated  margin,  and  a  widely  and  deeply  um- 
bilicated  columella.     The  general  foi-m  of  their  shell^is  closely  aUiedto  that 
of  thfe  Olivse.    Their  animal  is  unknown. 

Ancillabia,  Lam. 
The  same  smooth  shell,  and  at  the  lower  part  of  the  columella  a  marked 
lip;  there  is  no  umbilicus,  neither  is  the  spire  sulcated.     The  animal  of 
several  species  resembles  that  of  the  Olivac,  the  foot  being  still  more  de- 
veloped. 


GASTEROPODA  PECTINIBRANCHIATA.  267 

Dotinsr,  Lam. 
Those  in  which  projecting  ribs,  that  follow  the  direction  of  the  whorls, 
render  the  margin  undulated;  the  inferior  whorl  is  ample  and  ventricose. 

Haupa,  Lam. 
The  Harpx  are  easily  recognized  by  the  projecting,  transverse  ribs  on 
the  whorls;  the  last  of  which  forms  a  lip  on  the  margin.  The  shell  is  beau- 
tiful, and  the  animal  has  a  very  large  foot,  pointed  behind,  and  widened  in 
its  anterior  portion,  which  is  distinguished  by  two  deep  emarginations.  The 
eyes  are  on  the  sides  of  the  tentacula,  and  near  then-  base.  It  has  neither 
veil  nor  operculum.     The 

PcEPURA,  Brug. 

Is  known  by  its  flattened  columella,  which  is  trenchant  near  the  end  op- 
posite to  the  spire,  and  which,  with  the  external  margin,  forms  a  canal  there, 
sunk  in  the  shell,  but  not  salient.  The  animal  resembles  that  of  a  true 
Buccinum. 

The  remaining  subgenera  are  Concholepas,  Cassis,  Cassidaria  and  Terehra. 

Cerithium,  Brug. 
A  shell  with  a  turriculated  spire;  the  aperture  is  oval,  and  the  canal  short, 
but  well  marked,  and  reflected  to  the  left  or  backwards.  The  animal  has 
a  veil  on  its  head,  and  is  furnished  with  two  sepai-ated  tentacula,  on  the 
side  of  which  are  the  eyes,  and  with  a  round,  horny  operculum.  Many  are 
found  fossil. 

MuKEx,  Lin. 
This  genus  comprises  all  those  shells  in  which  there  is  a  salient  and  straight 
canal.  The  animal  of  each  subgenus  is  furnished  with  a  proboscis,  long 
approximated  tentacula,  on  the  external  side  of  which  are  the  eyes,  and  with 
a  horny  operculum;  the  veil  on  the  head  is  wanting,  and,  the  length  of  the 
siphon  excepted,  it  otherwise  resembles  that  of  the  Buccina.  Brugiere 
divides  them  into  genera,  which  have  been  since  subdivided  by  Messrs  La- 
marck and  Montfort.     The 

MuHEX,  Brug. 
Includes  all  those  which  have  a  salient  and  straight  canal,  with  varices 
across  the  whorls. 

Ranella,  Lam. 
Characterized  by  opposing  varices,  so  that  the  shell  is  bordered  with  them 
on  both  sides.     Their  canal  is  short,  and  their  surface  studded  with  mere 
tubercles;  margins  of  the  aperture  pUcated,     The 


268  MOLLUSCA. 

FuBtrs,  Bnig. 
Comprises  all  shells  with  a  salient  and  straight  canal,  which  are  destitute 
of  varices. 

TuRBiNEiiA,  Lam., 
Also  consists  of  shells  with  a  straight  canal,  but  without  varices,  distin- 
guishable by  the  large  transverse  plicae  on  their  columella,  which  extend 
the  whole  lengtli  of  the  aperture,  and  which  closely  approximate  them  to 
the  conical  Volut2e;  they  only  differ  from  the  latter  in  the  elongation  of 
their  aperture  into  a  sort  of  canal.     The  genus 

Steombus,  Lin. 
Includes  those  shells  with  a  canal  that  is  either  straight  or  inflected  towards 
the  right,  of  which  the  external  margin  of  the  aperture  dilates  with  age,  but 
still  preserves  a  sinus  near  the  canal,  under  which  passes  the  head  of  the 
animal  when  it  extends  itself. 

In  most  of  them  the  sinus  is  at  some  distance  from  the  canal.     They  are 
subdivided  by  M.  de  Lamarck  into  two  subgenera,  Sthombtjs  and  Pte- 

BOCEBA. 


ORDER  VII. 

TUBULIBR  ANCH I  AT  A. 

The  Tubulibranchiata  should  be  detached  from  the  Pectinibran- 
chiata,  with  which  they  are  very  closely  allied,  because  the  shell, 
which  resembles  a  more  or  less  irregularly  shaped  tube,  only  spiral 
at  the  commencement,  attaches  itself  to  various  bodies. 

Vermetus,  Adans. 
A  tubular  shell  whose  whorls,  at  an  early  age,  still  form  a  kind  of  spire,  but 
then  continue  on  in  a  tube  more  or  less  irregularly  contorted,  or  bent  like 
the  tubes  of  a  Serpula.  This  shell  usually  attaches  itself  by  interlacing  with 
others  of  the  same  species,  or  is  partly  enveloped  by  Lithophytes:  the  ani- 
mal, having  no  power  of  locomotion,  is  deprived  of  a  foot,  properly  so  called; 
but  the  part  %hich  in  oi-dinary  Gasteropoda  forms  the  tail,  is  here  turned 
under  it,  and  extends  to  beyond  the  head,  where  its  extremity  becomes  in- 
flated and  furnished  with  a  thin  operculum;  when  the  animal  withdraws 
into  its  shell,  it  is  this  mass  which  closes  the  enti-ance;  it  is  sometimes  seen 
with  various  appendages,  and  in  certain  species  the  operculirai  is  spiny. 


GASTEROPODA  TUBULIBRANCHIATA.  269 

Magilus,  Montf. 

The  Magili  have  a  longitudinally  carinated  tube,  which  is  at  first  regularly 
spiral,  and  then  extends  itself  in  a  line  more  or  less  straight;  although  the 
animal  is  unknown,  it  is  higlily  probable  that  it  should  be  placed  near  the 
Vermeti.    The 

SlLIQUARIA,  Brug. 
Resembles  Vermelus  in  the  head,  the  position  of  the  operculum,  and  in  the 
tubular  and  irregular  shell;  but  there  is  a  fissure  on  the  whole  length  of  this 
shell  which  follows  its  contour,  and  which  con'esponds  to  a  similar  cleft  in 
that  part  of  the  mantle  which  covers  the  branchial  cavity.  Along  the  whole 
side  of  this  cleft  is  a  branchial  comb,  composed  of  numerous,  loose  and  tab- 
ular-like lamellae. 


ORDER  VIII. 

SCUTIBRANCHIATA. 

The  Scutibranchiata  comprise  a  certain  number  of  Gasteropoda, 
similar  to  the  Pectinibranchiata,  in  the  form  and  position  of  the 
branchiae,  as  well  as  in  the  general  form  of  the  body.  Their  shells 
are  very  open,  without  an  operculum,  and  most  of  them  without  the 
slightest  turbination,  so  that  they  cover  these  animals,  and  particu- 
larly their  branchise,  in  the  manner  of  a  shield.     The 

Halyotis,  Lin. 

Is  the  only  genus  of  this  order  in  which  the  shell  is  turbinated;  it  is  distin- 
guished from  that  kind  of  shell  by  the  excessive  amplitude  of  the  aperture, 
and  the  flatness  and  smallness  of  the  spire,  which  is  seen  from  within. 
This  form  has  caused  it  to  be  compared  to  the  ear  of  a  quadruped.  In  the 
true  Halyotes,  the  shell  is  perforated  along  the  side  of  the  columella  by  a 
series  of  holes;  when  the  last  hole  is  not  terminated,  it  gives  to  that  part  the 
look  of  an  emargination.  The  animal  is  one  of  the  most  highly  ornamented 
of  all  the  Gasteropoda.  A  double  membrane,  cut  into  leaves  and  furnished 
with  a  double  range  of  filaments,  extends,  at  least  in  the  most  common  spe- 
cies, round  the  foot  and  on  to  the  mouth;  outside  its  long  tentacula,  are  two 
cylindrical  pedicles  which  support  the  eyes.  The  mantle  is  deeply  cleft  on 
the  right  side,  and  the  water,  which  passes  through  the  shell,  penetrates 
through  it  into  the  branchial  cavity;  along  its  edges  we  obseiTe  three  or 
four  filaments  which  the  animal  can  protrude  through  these  holes.  The 
mouth  is  a  short  proboscis. 


270  MOLLUSCA. 

In  the  following  genera,  which  are  separated  from  the  Patellae, 
the  shell  is  perfectly  symmetrical,  as  is  also  the  position  of  the  heart 
and  branchiae.     In  the 

FissuEELLA,  Lam., 
We  perceive  a  broad  fleshy  disk  under  the  abdomen,  as  in  the  Patellse,  a 
conical  shell  placed  on  the  middle  of  the  back,  but  not  always  completely 
covering'  it,  and  perforated  at  its  summit  by  a  small  orifice,  which  affords  a 
passage  to  the  water  required  for  respiration;  this  orifice  penetrates  into  the 
cavity  of  the  branchiae,  situated  on  the  fore  part  of  the  back;  a  cavity  other- 
wise widely  opened  above  the  head.  A  branchial  comb  is  symmetrically 
arranged  on  each  side;  the  eyes  are  on  the  external  base  of  the  conical  ten- 
tacula,  and  the  sides  of  the  foot  are  furnished  with  a  range  of  filaments. 
There  are  two  other  genera,  Emarginula  and  ParmopJiorus. 


ORDER  IX. 

CYCLOBRANCHIATA. 

The  branchiae  of  the  Cyclobranchiata  resemble  small  lamelice,  or 
little  pyramids  forming  a  cordon  more  or  less  complete  under  the 
borders  of  the  mantle,  very  nearly  as  in  the  Inferobranchiata. 
Their  heart  varies  as  to  situation.  But  two  genera  of  this  order  are 
known,  in  both  of  which  the  shell  never  approaches  in  the  least  to 
the  turbinated  form. 

Patella,  Lin. 

The  entire  body  covered  with  a  shell,  formed  of  a  single  piece,  in  the  form 
of  a  broad-based  cone;  a  cordon  of  little  branchial  lamellse  under  tlie  margin 
of  the  mantle;  the  head  is  furnished  with  a  thick  and  short  snout,  and  two 
pointed  tentacula,  on  the  external  base  of  which  are  the  eyes;  the  mouth  is 
fleshy,  and  contains  a  spiny  tongue,  which  inclines  backwards,  and  is  re- 
flected deeply  in  the  interior  of  the  body. 

Chiton,  Lin. 
A  range  of  testaceous  and  symmetrical  scales  along  the  back  of  the  mantle, 
but  not  occupying  its  whole  breadth;  edges  of  the  mantle  coriaceous,  and 
furnished  either  with  a  naked  skin  or  little  scales,  which  give  it  the  appeai-- 
ance  of  shagreen,  or  with  spines,  hairs,  or  setaceous  fasciculi.  Under  these 
edges,  on  each  side,  is  a  range  of  lamellar,  pyramidal  branchiae;  and  before, 
a  membranous  veil  on  the  mouth  supplies  the  want  of  tentacula. 


GASTEROPODA  CYCLOBRANCHIATA.      271 

A  few  small  species  ai-e  found  on  tlie  coast  of  France?  very  large  ones 
abound  in  the  seas  of  hot  climates. 


CLASS  IV. 

ACEPHALA. 

The  Acephala  have  no  apparent  head;  but  a  mere  mouth  con- 
cealed in  the  bottom,  or  between  the  folds  of  their  mantle.  The 
latter  is  almost  always  doubled  in  two,  and  encloses  the  body  as  a 
book  is  clasped  by  its  cover;  but  it  frequently  happens,  that,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  two  lobes  uniting  before,  it  forms  a  tube;  sometimes 
it  is  closed  at  one  end,  and  then  it  represents  a  sac.  This  mantle  is 
generally  provided  with  a  calcareous  bivalve,  and  sometimes  multi- 
valve,  shell,  and  in  two  genera  only  is  it  reduced  to  a  cartilaginous,  or 
even  membranous  nature.  The  brain  is  over  the  mouth,  where  we 
also  find  one  or  two  other  ganglia.  The  branchiae  usually  consist 
of  large  lamellas  covered  with  vascular  meshes,  under  or  between 
which  passes  the  water;  they  are  more  simple,  however,  in  the 
genera  without  a  shell.  From  these  branchiae  the  blood  proceeds 
to  a  heart,  generally  unique,  which  distributes  it  throughout  the  sys- 
tem, returning  to  the  pulmonary  artery  without  the  aid  of  another 
ventricle. 

The  mouth  is  always  edentated,  and  can  only  receive  the  mole- 
cules brought  to  it  by  the  water. 

All  the  Acephala  are  aquatic. 


ORDER  I. 

ACEPHALA  TESTACEA. 

Testaceous  Acephala,  or  Acephala  with  four  branchial  leaflets, 
are  beyond  all  comparison  the  most  numerous.  All  the  bivalves, 
and  some  genera  of  the  multivalves  belong  to  this  order.     Their 


272  MOLLUSC A. 

body,  which  contains  the  liver  and  viscera,  is  placed  between  the 
two  lamince  of  the  mantle;  forwards,  and  still  between  these  latninte 
are  the  four  branchial  leaflets,  transversely  and  regularly  striated  by 
the  vessels :  the  mouth  is  at  one  extremity,  and  the  heart  towards 
the  back;  the  foot,  when  it  exists,  is  inserted  between  the  four  bran- 
chiae. On  the  sides  of  the  mouth  are  four  triangular  leaflets,  which 
are  the  extremities  of  the  two  lips,  and  serve  as  tentacula.  The 
foot  is  a  mere  fleshy  mass,  the  motions  of  which  are  eflTected  by  a 
mechanism  analogous  to  that  which  acts  on  the  tongue  of  the  Mam- 
malia. Its  muscles  are  attached  to  the  bottom  of  the  valves  of  the 
shell.  Other  muscles,  which  sometimes  form  one  mass  and  some- 
times two,  cross  transversely  from  one  valve  to  the  other  to  keep 
them  closed,  but  wlien  the  animal  relaxes  these  muscles,  an  elastic 
ligament  placed  behind  the  hinge  opens  the  valves  by  its  contraction. 

A  considerable  number  of  bivalves  are  provided  with  what  is 
termed  a  byssus,  or  a  bundle  of  threads  more  or  less  slender,  which 
issues  from  the  base  of  the  foot,  and  by  which  the  animal  adheres 
to  various  bodies.  It  uses  its  foot  to  direct  the  threads  and  to 
agglutinate  their  extremities;  it  even  reproduces  them  when  cut, 
but  the  nature  of  the  production  is  not  thoroughly  ascertained. 
Reaumur  considered  these  threads  as  a  secretion,  spun  and  drawn 
from  the  sulcus  of  the  foot;  Poli  thinks  they  are  mere  prolongations 
of  tendinous  fibres. 

The  shell  consists  essentially  of  two  pieces,  called  valves,  to  which 
in  certain  genera  are  added  others,  connected  by  a  hinge  that  is 
sometimes  simple  and  sometimes  composed  of  a  greater  or  smaller 
number  of  teeth  and  plates,  which  are  received  into  corresponding 
cavities. 

There  is  usually  a  projecting  part  near  the  hinge  called  the  summit. 

Most  of  these  shells  fit  closely  when  the  animal  approximates 
them,  but  there  are  several  which  exhibit  gaping  portions  either  be- 
fore or  at  the  extremities. 


FAMILY  I. 

OSTRACEA. 

The  mantle  is  open,  without  tubes  or  any  particular  aperture. 
The  foot  is  either  wanting  in  these  Mollusca  or  is  small;  they  are 


ACEPHALA  TESTACEA.  273 

mostly  fixed  by  the  shell  or  byssus  to  rocks  and  other  submerged 
bodies.  Those  which  are  free,  seldom  move  except  by  acting  on 
the  water  by  suddenly  closing  their  valves. 

In  the  first  subdivision  there  is  nothing  but  a  muscular  mass 
reaching  from  one  valve  to  the  other,  as  seen  by  the  single  impress- 
ion left  upon  the  shell. 

It  is  thought  proper  to  class  with  them  certain  fossil  shells,  the 
valves  of  which  do  not  even  appear  to  have  been  held  together  by  a 
ligament,  but  which  covered  each  other  like  a  vase  and  its  cover, 
and  were  connected  by  muscles  only.     They  form  the  genus 

AcAEDA,  Brug. — OsTEACiTA,  La  Peyr., 
Of  which  M.  de  Lamarck  makes  a  family  that  he  names  Rudista.     The 
shells  are  thick,  and  of  a  solid  or  porous  tissue.     They  are  now  divided  into 
the  Radiolites,  iSphaerulites,  Cakeola,  Hippurites,  Batolithes. 

As  to  the  well  known  living  testaceous  Acephala,  Linnaeus  had 
united  in  the  genus 

OSTREA, 

All  those  which  have  but  a  small  lig-ament  at  the  hinge,  inserted  into  a  little 
depression  on  each  side,  and  without  teeth  or  projecting  plates. 

OsTREA,  Brug. 

The  true  Oysters  have  the  ligament  as  just  described,  and  irregular,  in- 
equivalve,  and  lamellated  shells.  They  adhere  to  rocks,  piles,  and  even  to 
each  other,  by  their  most  convex  valve. 

The  animal, — Peloris,  Poli, — is  one  of  the  most  simple  of  all  the  bivalves, 
possessing  nothing  remarkable  but  a  double  fringe  round  the  mantle,  the 
lobes  of  which  are  only  united  above  the  h€;lfd,  near  the  hingej  but  there,  ia 
no  vestige  of  a  foot. 

Pecten,  Brug. 
The  Pectens,  very  properly  separated  from  the  Oysters  by  Brugieres,  al- 
though they  have  the  same  kind  of  hinge,  are  easily  distinguished  by  their 
inequivalve  semi-circular  shell,  almost  always  regularly  marked  with  ribs 
which  radiate  from  the  summit  of  each  valve  to  the  edge,  and  furnished 
with  two  angular  productions  called  ears,  which  widen  the  sides  of  the  hinge. 

Lima,  Brug. 
The  lAmae  differ  from  the  Pectens  in  the  superior  length  of  their  shell  in 
a  direction  perpendicular  to  the  hinge,  the  ears  of  which  are  shorter,  and 
the  sides  less  unequal,  thus  forming  an  oblique  oval.     The  ribs  of  most  of 
2  K 


274  MOLLUSCA, 

them  are  relieved  with  scales.     The  Limse  swim  with  rapidity  by  means  of 
their  valves. 

Certain  fossils  may  be  placed  here  which  have  the  hinge,  ligament, 
and  central  muscle  of  the  Ostreas,  Pectines,  and  Limse,  but  are  dis- 
tinguished by  some  of  the  details  of  the  shell.  They  are  Hinnitay 
Plagiostoma,  Pachytes,  Dianchora^  and  Podopsis. 

Although  multivalve,  we  should  approximate  the 

Anomia,  Brug. 
To  the  Ostreae.  The  Jnomise  have  two  thin,  unequal,  irregular  valves,  the 
flattest  of  which  is  deeply  notched  on  the  side  of  the  ligament,  which  is 
similar  to  that  of  the  Ostrere.  The  g-reater  part  of  the  central  muscle  tra- 
verses this  opening  to  be  inserted  into  a  third  plate,  that  is  sometimes  stony 
and  sometimes  horny,  by  which  the  animal  adheres  to  foreign  bodies,  and 
the  remainder  of  it  (the  muscle)  serves  to  join  one  valve  to  the  other.  The 
animal, — Echion,  Poll,  has  a  small  vestige  of  a  foot,  similar  to  that  of  a 
Pecten,  which  slips  between  the  emarginatlon  and  the  plate  that  closes  it, 
and  perhaps  serves  to  direct  water  to  the  mouth,  which  is  close  to  it. 

These  shells  are  found  attached  to  various  bodies  hke  the  Ostreae.  They 
are  found  in  every  sea. 

PiiACUNA,  Brug. 

A  small  genus  allied  to  the  Anomlse,  in  which  the  valves  are  thin,  unequal, 
and  frequently  irregular,  as  in  the  latter,  but  both  entire. 

SpoNDYiiUS,  Lin. 
A  rough  and  foliaceous  shell  like  the  Ostrea,  and  frequently  spiny;  but 
the  hinge  is  more  complex?  besides  the  cavity  for  the  ligament,  analogous 
to  that  of  the  Ostreae,  there  are  two  teeth  to  each  valve  that  enter  into 
fossx  in  the  opposite  one;  the  two  middle  teeth  belong  to  the  most  convex 
valve,  which  is  usually  the  left  one,  and  which  has  a  projecting  heel,  flat- 
tened, as  if  sawed  thi-ough  behind  the  hinge. 

The  Spondyli  are  eaten  hke  Oysters.  Their  shells  are  frequently  tinged 
with  the  most  brilliant  colours.     They  adhere  to  all  sorts  of  bodies. 

Malleus,  Lam. 
A  simple  pit  for  the  ligament  as  in  the  Ostrese,  where  the  Mallei  were  left 
by  Linnaeus,  on  account  of  their  having  the  same  irregular  and  inequlvalve' 
shell,  but  distinguished  by  a  notch  on  the  side  of  this  ligament  for  the  pass- 
age of  a  byssus. 

The  most  known  species,  Ostrea  malleus,  L. ,  which  ranks  among  the  num- 
ber of  high-priced  and  rare  shells,  has  the  two  ends  of  the  hinge  extended 
and  forming  something  hke  the  head  of  a  hammer,  of  which  the  valves. 


ACEPHALA  TESTACEA.  275 

elongated  in  a  transverse  direction,  represent  the  handle.     It  Inhabits  the 
Archipelago  of  India. 

Vulsella,  Lam. 

A  little  salient  plate  inside  of  the  hinge  of  each  side,  from  one  of  which  to 
the  other  extends  tlie  ligament,  otherwise  similar  to   that  of  the  Ostrese. 
By  the  side  of  this  plate  is  a  notch  for  the  byssus,  as  in  the  Mallei.     The 
shell  is  elongated  in  a  direction  perpendicular  to  tlie  hinge. 
The  most  known  species  inhabit  the  Indian  Ocean. 

Perna,  Brug. 
Several  parallel  cavities  across  the  hinge,  opposed  to  each  other  in  the  two 
valves,  and  lodging  as  many  elastic  ligaments;  the  irregular  and  foliaceous 
shell  marked  on  the  anterior  side  and  under  the  liinge  by  a  notch  traversed 
by  the  byssus.  The  Pernae  were  also  left  by  Linnsus  among  the  Osti-ex. 
This  genus  is  now  subdivided. 

In  the  second  subdivision  of  the  Ostracea,  as  vi^ell  as  in  almost  all 
the  bivalves  which  follow,  besides  the  single  transverse  muscular 
mass  of  the  preceding  genera,  there  is  a  fasciculus  which  is  placed 
before  the  mouth,  and  extends  from  one  valve  to  the  other.  It  is 
apparently  in  tiiis  subdivision  that  we  must  place  the 

Etheria,  Lam. 
Large  inequivalve  shells,  as  irregular  as  those  of  the  Ostrese,  and  more  so-; 
no  teeth  to  the  hinge;  the  ligament  partly  external  and  partly  internal. 
They  differ  from  the  Ostreae  in  having  two  muscular  impressions.     The  ani- 
mal is  not  seen  to  produce  a  byssus. 

They  have  lately  been  discovered  in  the  Upper  Nile. 

AvicuLA,  Brug. 
An  equivalve  shell  with  a  rectilinear  hinge,  frequently  extended  into  wings 
by  its  extremities,  furnished  with  a  narrow  and  elongated  ligament,  and 
sometimes  with  small  notches  near  the  mouth  of  the  animal;  in  the  anterior 
side,  a  little  beneath  the  angle  of  the  side  of  the  mouth,  is  a  notch  for  the 
byssus.     The  anterior  transverse  muscle  is  excessively  small. 

Mytilus  margaritiferus,  L.,  has  nearly  a  semicircular  shell,  greenish  with- 
out, and  ornamented  with  the  most  beautiful  nacre  within.  The  latter  is 
employed  in  the  arts,  and  it  is  from  the  extravasation  of  this  substance  that 
are  produced  the  oriental  or  fine  pearls,  taken  by  the  divers  at  Ceylon,  in 
the  Persian  Gulf,  &c. 

Pinna,  Lin. 

The  Pinnae  have  two  equal  valves,  forming  a  segment  of  a  cu-cle,  or  ref5em- 


276  MOLLUSCA. 

bling  a  half  opened  fan,  which  are  closely  united  by  a  ligament  along  one 
of  their  sides.  The  animal,  the  CaiMyEiiA,  Poli,  is  elongated,  like  its  shell; 
the  lips,  branchiae,  and  other  parts  are  in  the  same  proportion. 

The  byssus  of  several  species  of  Pinna  is  as  fine  and  brilliant  as  silk,  and 
is  employed  in  fabricating  the  most  precious  stuffs.     Such  is  the 

P.  nobilis,  L.,  which  is  moreover  recognized  by  the  valves  being  rough- 
ened with  recurved  and  semitabular  plates.  It  remains  half  buried  in  the 
Band,  and  anchored  by  its  byssus.     In  the 

Arca,  Lin. 
The  valves  are  equal  and  transverse,  that  is  to  say,  the  hinge  occupies  the 
longest  side.  It  is  furnished  with  a  large  number  of  small  teeth,  which  in- 
terlock with  each  other,  and,  as  in  the  subsequent  genera,  with  two  fasci- 
culi of  transverse  and  nearly  equal  muscles,  inserted  into  the  extremities  of 
the  valves,  which  serve  to  close  them. 

Teigonia,  Brug. 
Remarkable  for  the  hinge,  which  is  furnished  with  two  plates  en  chevron, 
crenulated  on  both  faces,  each  of  which  penetrates  into  two  cavities,    or 
rather  between  four  plates  of  the  opposite  side,  similarly  crenulated  on  their 
internal  surface. 

The  living  Trigoni?e  resemble  the  Cardise  in  the  form  of  their  shell,  and 
the  ribs  which  furrow  it:  its  interior  is  composed  of  nacre. 

The  fossil  Trigonis  are  different.  Their  shell  is  flattened  on  one  side, 
oblique,  longest  in  a  direction  perpendicular  to  the  hinge,  and  traversed  in 
a  contrary  direction  by  sei'ies  of  tubercles. 


FAMILY  II. 
MYTILACEA. 

In  the  second  family  of  the  testaceous  Acephala,  the  mantle  is 
open  before. 

All  these  bivalves  have  a  foot,  used. in  crawling,  or  at  least  serv- 
ing to  draw  out,  direct,  and  place  the  byssus.  Tliey  are  commonly 
known  under  the  generic'name  o[  Muscles. 

Mytilijs,  Lin. 
The  true  Mytili  or  Sea-Muscles  have  a  closed  shell,  with  equal,  convex  and 
triangular  valves.  One  of  the  sides  of  the  acute  angle  forms  the  hinge,  and 
is  furnished  with  a  long,  narrow  ligament.  The  head  of  the  animal  is  in  the 
acute  angle;  the  other  side  of  the  shell,  which  is  tlie  longest,  is  the  anterior 
one,  and  allows  the  passage  of  the  byssus;  it  terminates  in  a  rounded  angle. 


ACEPHALA  TESTACEA.  277 

and  the  third  side  ascends  towards  tlie  hinge,  to  which  it  is  joined  by  an 
obtuse  angle.  The  animal — Callitkiche,  Poli,  has  the  edges  of  its  mantle 
provided  with  branched  tentacula  near  the  rounded  angle,  as  it  is  there  that 
the  water  enters  requu-ed  for  respiration.  Before,  and  near  the  acute  an- 
gle is  a  small  transverse  muscle,  and  a  large  one  behind,  near  the  obtuse 
angle.     Its  foot  resembles  a  tongue. 

Myt.  edulis,  L.  This  common  Muscle  is  frequently  seen  suspended  in 
extended  clusters,  along  the  whole  coast  of  France,  to  rocks,  piles,  &c.  &c. 
It  forms  a  considerable  item  of  food,  but  is  dangerous  if  eaten  to  excess. 

Some  of  them  are  found  fossil.     In  the 

Anodontea,  Brug. 

The  anterior  angle  rounded  like  the  posterior;  the  hinge  of  the  thin  and 
moderately  convex  shell  has  no  appearance  of  a  tooth  whatever,  being 
merely  furnished  with  a  ligament  which  extends  along  the  whole  of  its 
length.  The  animal, — Limn^a,  Poli,  has  no  byssus;  its  foot,  which  is  very 
large,  compressed  and  quadrangular,  enables  it  to  crawl  upon  the  sand  or 
ooze.  The  posterior  extremity  of  its  mantle  is  provided  with  numerous 
small  tentacula.     The  Anodontes  inhabit  fresh  water. 

Several  species  are  found  in  France,  one  of  which — Mytilus  cygneus,  is 
common  in  ponds.  Sec,  with  oozy  bottoms.  Its  light  and  thin  shells  are 
used  for  milk-skimmers,  but  its  flesh  is  not  eaten  on  account  of  its  insipidity. 

Unio,  Brug. 
These  MoUusca  resemble  the  Anodontese  both  in  their  animal  and  shell,  with 
the  exception  of  their  hinge,  which  is  more  complex.  There  is  a  short  ca- 
vity in  the  anterior  part  of  the  right  valve,  which  receives  a  short  plate  or 
tooth  from  the  left  one,  and  behind  it  is  a  long  plate  wliich  is  inserted  be- 
tween two  others  on  the  opposite  side.  They  also  inhabit  fresh  water,  pre- 
ferring running  streams. 

Numerous  species,  remarkable  for  size  or  form,  inhabit  the  rivers  and 
lakes  of  the  United  States.  Messrs  Say  and  Barnes,  who  have  described 
them,  have  established  some  new  subgenera  among  them. 

There  are  certain  Marine  Mollusca  which  have  a  similar  animal,  and  about 
the  same  kind  of  liinge,  that  should  be  placed  near  the  Unios;  the  summits 
of  the  shell,  however,  are  more  convex,  and  it  is  marked  by  projecting  ribs 
extending  from  the  summits  to  the  edge.     They  form  the 

Caedita^  Brug. 
"Which  are  more  or  less  oblong  or  codlform,  the  inferior  margin,  in  some, 
gaping. 

CypRiCARDiA,  Lam. 

Cardltac,  in  which  the  tooth  under  the  summit  is  divided  into  two  or  three. 
Their  form  is  oblong,  and  their  sides  unequal. 


278  MOLLUSCA. 

M.  de  Blainville  also  separates  the 

CoEAliLiopHAGA,  Blainv. 

Where  the  shell  is  thin,  and  the  lateral  plate  considerably  effaced,  which 
may  cause  their  approximation  to  Venus. 

One  of  them  is  known  which  excavates  coralline  masses  to  form  its  habi- 
tation.    The 

Venericardia,  Latn. 
Only  differs  from  the  Carditx  in  the  circumstance  that  the  posterior  plate 
of  their  hinge  is  shorter  and  more  transverse,  which  caused  their  approxi- 
mation to  Venus;  their  form  is  almost  round.  Judging-  from  the  impressions 
of  its  muscles  on  tliem,  their  animal  must  resemble  that  of  the  Carditse  and 
Unios. 

Both  of  them  approach  the  Cardia  in  their  general  form  and  the  direction 
of  their  ribs.     I  suspect  that  this  is  also  the  place  for  the 

Crassatella,  Lam. 

"Which  has  sometimes  been  approximated  to  Mactra,  and  at  others  to 
Venus;  the  hinge  has  two  slightly  marked  lateral  teeth,  and  two  very  strong 
middle  ones,  behind  which,  extending  to  both  sides,  is  a  triangular  J^cavity 
for  an  internal  ligament.  The  valves  become  very  thick  by  age,  and  the 
impression  made  by  the  margin  of  the  mantle,  leads  to  the  belief  that  there 
are  no  protractile  tubes. 

FAMILY  III. 

CHAMACEA. 

The  mantle  closed  and  perforated  by  three  holes,  through  one  of 
which  passes  the  foot;  the  second  furnishes  an  entrance  and  exit  to 
the  water  requisite  for  respiration:  the  two  latter  are  not  prolonged 
into  tubes  as  in  the  subsequent  family.     It  only  comprises  the  genus 

Chama,  Lin., 

Where  the  hinge  is  very  analogous  to  that  of  a  Unio,  that  is  to  say,  the  left 
valve  near  the  summit  is  provided  with  a  tooth,  and  further  back  with  a  sa- 
lient plate,  which  are  received  into  corresponding  fossse  of  the  right  valve. 
This  genus  has  necessarily  been  divided.     In  the 

Tkidacna,  Brug., 

The  shell  is  greatly  elongated  transversely,  andequivalve;  the  superior  angle 
which  answers  to  the  head  and  summit,  very  obtuse. 


ACEPHALA  TESTACEA.  279 

The  animal  is  very  singular,  inasmuch  as  it  is  not,  like  most  of  the  others, 
placed  in  the  shell,  but  is  directed,  or,  as  it  were,  pressed  out  before.  The 
anterior  side  of  the  mantle  is  widely  opened  for  the  passage  of  the  byssus; 
a  little  below  the  anterior  angle  is  another  opening  which  transmits  water 
to  the  branchix. 

There  is  but  a  single  transverse  muscle,  corresponding  to  the  middle  of 
the  margin  of  the  valves.  In  Tridacna,  Lam.,  or  the  Tridacnae  properly 
so  called,  the  front  of  the  shell  as  well  as  of  the  mantle  has  a  wide  opening 
with  notched  edges  for  the  transmission  of  the  byssus,  which  latter  is  evi- 
dently tendinous,  andcontinues  uninterruptedly  with  the  muscular  fibres. 

Such  is  the  celebrated  and  enormous  shell  of  India,  the  Chama  gigas,  L. ; 
which  is  decorated  with  broad  ribs  relieved  by  projecting  semi-circular 
scales.  Specimens  have  been  taken  that  weighed  upwards  of  three  hundred 
pounds.  The  tendinous  byssus  which  attaches  them  to  the  rocks,  is  so  thick 
and  stout  that  the  axe  is  required  to  sever  it.  The  flesh,  though  tough,  is 
edible. 


FAMILY  IV. 

CARDIACEA. 

The  mantle  is  open  before,  and  there  are,  besides,  two  separate 
apertures,  which  are  prolonged  in  tubes,  sometimes  distinct,  and  at 
others  united  in  one  single  mass.  There  is  always  a  transverse  mus- 
cle at  each  extremity,  and  a  foot  generally  used  for  crawling.  It 
may  be  considered  as  a  general  rule,  that  those  which  are  furnished 
with  long  tubes,  live  in  ooze  or  in  sand.  This  mode  of  organization 
may  be  recognized  in  the  shell  by  the  more  or  less  depressed  con- 
tour described  by  the  insertion  of  the  edges  of  the  mantle  previous  to' 
its  uniting  with  the  impression  of  the  posterior  transverse  muscle. 

Cardium,  Lin. 
The  Cardia,  like  many  other  bivalves,  have  an  equivalve,  convex  shell, 
with  salient  summits  curved  towards  the  hinge,  which,  when  viewing  it  side- 
wise,  gives  it  the  figure  of  a  hearty  hence  its  name  of  Cardium,  Heart,  &c. 
The  animal, — Cerastes,  Poli, — has  generally  an  ample  aperture  in  the 
mantle,  a  very  large  foot  forming  an  elbowin  the  middle  and  with  its  point 
directed  forwards,  and  two  short  or  but  moderately  long  tubes. 

DoNAX,  Lin. 

The  JDonaces  have  nearly  the  same  kind  of  hinge  as  the  Cardia,  but  their 
shell  is  of  a  very  different  form,  being  a  triangle,  of  which  the  obtuse  angle 
is  at  the  summit  of  the  valves,  and  the  base  at  their  edge,  and  of  which  the 


280  MOLLUSC A. 

shortest  side  is  that  of  the  ligament,  or  the  posterior  side,  a  rare  circum- 
stance in  this  degree,  among  bivalves.  They  are  generally  small,  and  pret- 
tily striated  from  the  summits  to  the  edges;  their  animal — Peron^a,  Poll, 
is  furnished  witli  long  tubes  which  are  received  into  a  sinus  of  the  mantle. 
The 

Cyclas,  Brug. 
Separated  from  Venus  by  Brugieres,  hke  the  Cardia  and  Donaces,  has  two 
teeth  in  the  middle  of  the  hinge,  and  before  and  behind,  two  salient  and 
sometimes  crenulated  plates;  but  the  shell,  as  in  several  species  of  Venus,  is 
more  or  less  rounded,  equilateral,  and  ti'ansversely  striated.  The  animal 
has  moderate  tubes.  The  external  tint  is  usually  grey  or  greenish.  The 
Cyclades  inhabit  fresh  water. 

CoRBis,  Cuv. 
Marine  testaceous  Acephala,  transversely  oblong,  which  have  also  stout 
middle  teeth,  and  well  marked  lateral  plates;  their  external  surface  is  fur- 
nished with  transverse  ribs  so  regularly  crossed  by  rays,  that  it  may  be  com- 
pared to  wicker-work.     In  the 

Tellina,  Lin. 

There  are  in  the  middle,  one  tooth  on  the  left  and  two  teeth  on  the  right, 
frequently  forked,  and  at  some  distance  before  and  behind,  on  the  right 
valve,  a  plate,  which  does  not  penetrate  into  a  cavity  of  the  opposite  one. 
There  is  a  slight  plica  near  the  posterior  extremity  of  the  two  valves,  which 
renders  them  unequal  in  that  part,  where  they  are  somewhat  open. 

The  animal  of  tlie  TeUinse — Vbuoniea,  Poli, — like  that  of  the  Donaces, 
has  two  long  tubes,  which  withdraw  into  the  shell,  and  are  concealed  in  a 
duplicature  of  the  mantle. 

Their  shells  are  generally  transversely  striated,  and  decorated  with  beau- 
tiful colours. 

LuciNA,  Brug. 

Separated  lateral  teeth,  as  in  the  Cardia,  Cyclades,  &c.,  that  penetrate  be- 
tween the  plates  of  the  other  valve;  in  the  middle  are  two  teeth,  frequently, 
but  slightly  apparent.  The  shell  is  orbicular,  and  without  any  impression 
of  the  retractor  muscle  of  the  tube;  that  of  the  anterior  constrictor,  however, 
is  very  long. 

The  Uving  species  are  much  less  numerous  tlian  those  that  are  fossil;  the 
latter  are  very  common  in  the  envu-ons  of  Paris. 

Vknus,  Lin. 
This  genus  comprises  many  Testacea  whose  general  character  consists  in 
the  teeth  and  plates  of  the  hinge  being  approximated  under  the  summit,  in 
a  single  group.     They  are  usually  more  flattened  and  elongated,  in  a  direc- 


ACEPHALA  TESTACEA.  281 

tion  parallel  to  the  hinge,  than  the  Cardia.  Therib«,  when  there  are  any, 
are  almost  always  parallel  to  the  edges,  being  directly  the  reverse  of  their 
arrangement  in  the  Cardia. 

The  animal  is  always  furnished  with  two  more  or  less  protractile  tubes, 
sometimes  united,  and  with  a  compressed  foot,  which  enable  it  to  crawl. 
This  genus  is  now  divided  into  Petricola,  Crassina,  Cytherea,  Capsa,  Cor- 
bula,  Madra,  &c.     The  common  Clam  is  a  true  Venus. 


FAMILY  V. 

INCLUSA. 

The  mantle  open  at  the  anterior  extremity,  or  near  the  middle 
only,  for  the  passage  of  the  foot,  and  extended  from  the  other  end 
into  a  double  tube,  which  projects  from  the  shell,  whose  extremities 
are  always  gaping.  Nearly  all  of  them  live  buried  in  sand,  stones, 
ooze  or  wood.     Those  of  the  genus 

Mya,  Lin., 
Have  but  two  valves  to  their  oblong  shell,  the  hinge  of  which  varies.     The 
double  tube  forms  a  fleshy  cylinder,  and  the  foot  is  compressed.     The 
different  forms  of  the  hinge  have  furnished  Messrs  Daudin,   Lamarck,  &c. 
with  various  subdivisions,  Luiraria,  Myaproper,  Anatina,  Solemya,  &c. 

Here  also  we  find  a  group  of  some  small  and  singular  genera, 
such  as 

Btssomia,  Cuv. 
Where  the  oblong  shell,  which  has  no  marked  tooth,  has  the  opening  for 
the  foot  at  about  the  middle  of  its  edge  and  opposite  the  summits.     The 
Byssomix  penetrate  into  stone,  oorals,  &c. 
A  species  which  is  provided  with  a  byssus,  abounds  in  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

HiATELLA,  Daud. 
The  shell  gaping,  to  allow  the  passage  of  the  foot,  near  the  middle  of  its 
edges;  but  the  tooth  of  the  hinge  is  better  marked  than  in  the  preceding 
genus.     Ranges  of  salient  spines  are  frequently  observed  on  the  hind  part 
of  the  shell.    They  are  found  in  sand,  among  Zoophytes,  &c. 

SoLEN,  Lin. 

The  shell  only  bivalve,  oblong  or  elongated,  but  the  hinge  always  furnished 

with  salient  and  well  marked  teeth,   and  the  ligament  external.     In  the 

Solens  properly  so  called,  the  shell  is  cylindrically  elongated,  and  has  two  or 

2  L 


282  MOLLUSCA. 

three  teeth  in  each  valve  near  the  anterior  extremity,  where  the  foot  issues. 
The  latter  is  conical,  and  enables  the  animal  to  bury  itself  in  the  sand, 
which  it  excavates  with  considerable  rapidity  on  the  approach  of  danger. 

Pholas,  Lin. 

The  Pholades  have  two  broad  valves,  convex  towards  the  mouth,  narrow 
and  elongated  on  the  opposite  side,  and  leaving  a  large  oblique  opening  at 
each  extremity;  their  hinge,  hke  that  of  a  true  Mya,  is  furnished  with  a 
plate  projecting  from  one  valve  into  the  other,  and  with  an  internal  hgament 
running  from  that  plate  into  a  corresponding  cavity.  Their  mantle  is  re- 
flected externally  upon  the  hinge,  where  it  sometimes  contains  two  or  three 
supernumerary  calcareous  bodies.  The  foot  issues  through  the  aperture 
on  the  side  next  to  the  mouth,  where  it  is  widest,  and  from  the  opposite  one 
project  the  two  tubes,  which  are  united  and  susceptible  of  inflation  in  every 
direction. 

The  Pholades  inhabit  canals  which  they  excavate,  some  in  ooze  and  others 
in  stone,  like  the  Lithodomi,  Petricolse,  &c.  They  are  much  sought  for  on 
account  of  their  agreeable  flavour. 

Teredo,  Lin. 
The  mantle  extended  in  a  tube  much  longer  than  the  two  small,  rhomboi- 
dal  valves,  and  terminated  by  two  short  tubes,  the  base  of  which  is  furnish- 
ed on  each  side  with  a  stony  and  movable  kind  of  operculum  or  palette. 
These  Acephala,  while  quite  young,  penetrate  and  establish  their  habita- 
tions in  submerged  pieces  of  wood,  such  as  piles,  ships'  bottoms,  &c., 
perforating  and  destroying  them  in  every  direction.  It  is  thought,  that 
in  order  to  penetrate  as  fast  as  it  increases  in  size,  the  Teredo  excavates  the 
wood  by  means  of  its  valves?  but  the  tubes  remain  near  the  opening  by 
which  its  entrance  was  eff"ected,  and  through  which,  by  the  aid  of  its  pa- 
lette, it  receives  water  and  aUment.  The  gallery  it  inhabits  is  lined  with  a 
calcareous  ci-ust  which  exudes  from  its  body,  and  which  forms  a  second 
kind  of  tubular  shell  for  it.  It  is  a  noxious  and  destructive  animal  in  the 
sea  ports  of  Europe. 

Teredo  navalis,  L.  This  species,  which  is  the  most  common,  and  is  said 
to  have  been  introduced  into  Europe  from  the  torrid  zone,  has  more  than 
once  threatened  Holland  with  ruin  by  the  destruction  of  its  dikes.  It  is 
upwards  of  six  inches  in  length  and  has  simple  palettes. 

FisTULANA,  Brug. 

Separated  from  Teredo;  the  external  tube  is  entirely  closed  at  its  larger 
end,  and  is  more  or  less  hke  a  bottle  or  club.  The  Fistulanae  are  some- 
times found  buried  in  submerged  fragments  of  wood  or  in  fruits,  and  the 
animal,  hke  that  of  a  Teredo,  has  two  small  valves,  and  as  many  palettes. 
Recent  specimens  are  only  obtained  from'  the  Indian  Ocean,  but  they  are 
found  fossil  in  Europe.     We  should  approximate  to  them  the 


ACEPHALA  TESTACEA.  283 

Gastroch^na,  Spengler. 
Where  the  shells  are  deprived  of  teeth,  and  their  edg'es  being  wide  apart 
anteriorly,  leave  a  large  oblique  opening,  opposite  to  which  there  is  a  small 
hole  in  the  mantle  for  the  passage  of  the  foot.  The  double  tube,  which  can 
be  retraced  completely  within  the  shell,  is  susceptible  of  being  greatly  elon- 
gated. It  appears  that  they  are  certainly  furnished  with  a  calcareous  tube. 
They  inhabit  the  interior  of  Madrepores,  which  they  perforate. 

Two  genera  of  Acephala  furnished  with  tubes,  have  been  de- 
tected among  fossils,  but  the  first  of  them,  the 

Teredina,  Lam., 
Has  a  little  cuilleron  on  the  inside  of  each  of  its  valves,  and  a  small,  free 
shield-shaped  piece  on  the  hinge.     In  the  second, 

Clavagella,  Lam., 
One  of  the  valves  is  clasped  by  the  tube,  leaving  the  other,  however,  free. 
A  single  living  species  is  found  in  the  Madrepores  of  the  Sicilian  seas,  which 
has  been  described  by  M.  Audouin. 

Some  naturalists  think  we  should  also  place  in  this  family  the 

AsPERGiLLUM,  Lam. 
The  shell  of  which  is  formed  of  an  elongated  conical  tube,  closed  at  its 
widest  extremity  by  a  disk  perforated  with  numerous  small  tubular  holes; 
the  httle  tubes  of  the  outer  range  being  longest,  form  a  kind  of  corolla 
round  it.  The  reason  for  approximating  them  to  the  Acephala  witli  tubes 
is  found  in  the  fact  that  there  is  a  double  projection  on  one  part  of  the  cone 
which  really  resembles  the  two  valves  of  the  Acephala.  The  affinity  be- 
tween these  little  tubes  and  those  which  envelope  the  tentacula  of  certain 
Terebella,  formerly  caused  this  animal  to  be  referred  to  the  Annulata. 

The  species  most  known,  Asper.  javanum,  is  seven  or  eight  inches  in 
length. 


ORDER  II. 

ACEPHALA  NUDA. 

The  naked  Acephala  are  not  numerous,  and  are  sufficiently  re- 
moved from  the  ordinary  Acephala,  to  form  a  distinct  class,  were 
such  a  division  considered  requisite.  Their  branchiae  assume  va- 
rious forms,  but  are  never  divided  into  four  leaflets;  the  shell  is 


284  MOLLUSCA. 

replaced  by  a  cartilaginous  substance  which  is  sometimes  so  thin 
that  it  is  as  flexible  as  a  membrane.  We  divide  them  into  two 
families. 


FAMILY  I. 

SEGREGATA. 

This  family  comprises  those  genera  in  which  the  individuals  that 
compose  them  are  insulated  and  without  any  mutual  organic  con- 
nection, although  frequently  living  in  society.     In  the 

BiPHORA,  Brug. — Thalia,  Brown, — Salpa  and  Dagysa,  Gmelin. 
The  mantle  and  its  cartilaginous  envelope  are  oval  or  cylindrical,  and  open 
at  the  two  extremities.  Muscular  bands  embrace  the  mantle  and  contract  the 
body.  The  animal  moves  by  taking  in  water  at  the  posterior  aperture,  and 
forcing  it  out  through  that  near  the  mouth,  so  that  it  is  always  propelled 
backwards,  a  circumstance  which  has  led  some  naturalists  into  error  by 
causing  them  to  mistake  the  posterior  opening  for  the  true  mouth.  It  usu- 
ally swims  on  its  back.  The  branchiae  form  a  single  tube  or  riband,  fm-nish- 
ed  with  regular  vessels,  placed  obliquely  in  the  middle  of  the  tubular  cavity 
of  the  mantle,  in  such  a  manner  that  it  is  constantly  bathed  by  the  water  as 
it  traverses  that  cavity.  The  mantle  and  its  envelope  when  exposed  to  the 
sun  exhibit  the  colours  of  the  rainbow,  and  are  so  diaphanous,  that  the  whole 
structure  of  the  animal  can  be  seen  tlirough  them:  in  many  they  are  furnish- 
ed with  perforated  tubercles.  The  animal  has  been  seen  to  come  out  from 
its  envelope  without  appearing  to  suffer  pain. 

These  animals  are  very  abundant  in  the  Mediterranean  and  the  wanner 
portions  of  the  ocean,  and  are  frequently  phosphorescent. 

AsciDiA,  Lin. — Theytoho^the  Ancients. 
The  mantle  and  its  cartilaginous  envelope,  which  is  frequently  very  thick, 
resemble  sacs  everywhere  closed,  except  at  two  orifices,  which  correspond 
to  the  two  tubes  of  several  bivalves.  The  branchije  form  a  large  sac,  at  the 
bottom  of  which  are  the  mouth  and  the  visceral  mass.  The  envelope  is 
much  larger  than  the  mouth,  which  is  fibrous  and  vascular,  and  on  which, 
between  the  two  tubes,  is  one  of  the  ganglions.  These  animals  attach 
themselves  to  rocks  and  other  bodies,  and  are  deprived  of  all  power  of  lo- 
comotion; the  chief  sign  of  vitality  which  they  exhibit,  consists  in  the  absorp- 
tion and  evacuation  of  water  through  one  of  their  orifices;  when  alarmed 
they  eject  it  to  a  considerable  distance.  They  abound  in  every  sea,  and 
some  of  them  are  eaten. 
Some  species  are  remarkable  for  the  long  pedicle  which  supports  them. 


ACEPHALA  NUDA.  285 

FAMILY  II. 

AGGREGATA. 

The  second  family  consists  of  animals  more  or  less  analogous  to 
the  Ascidias,  but  united  in  a  common  mass,  so  that  they  seem  to 
communicate  organically  with  each  other,  and  in  this  respect  to 
connect  the  Molluscawith  the  Zoophytes;  but  independently  of  their 
peculiar  organization,  these  animals,  according  to  the  observations 
of  Messrs  Audouin  and  Milne  Edwards,  at  first  live  and  swim  sepa- 
rately, only  becoming  united  at  a  certain  subsequent  period,  a  fact 
which  is  in  direct  opposition  to  this  opinion. 

BoTKTLLtrs,  Gaert. 
An  oval  form,  fixed  on  various  bodies,  and  united  by  tens  or  twelves,  like 
the  rays  of  a  star.  The  branchial  orifices  are  at  the  external  extremities  of 
these  rays,  and  the  opening  terminates  in  a  common  cavity,  which  is  in  the 
centre  of  the  star.  If  an  orifice  be  irritated,  but  a  single  animal  contracts; 
if  the  centre  be  touched  they  all  contract.  These  very  small  animals  at- 
tach themselves  to  certain  Ascidiae,  Fuci,  &c. 

In  some  particular  species,  three  or  four  stars  appeared  to  be  piled  one 
on  the  other. 

Pyrosoma,  Peron. 

The  Pyrosoma  unite  in  great  numbers,  forming  a  large  hollow  cylinder, 
open  at  one  end  and  closed  at  the  other,  which  swims  in  the  ocean  by  the 
alternate  contraction  and  dilatation  of  the  individual  animals  which  compose 
it.  The  latter  terminate  in  a  point  on  tlie  exterior,  so  that  the  whole  ex- 
ternal surface  of  the  tube  is  bristled  with  them;  the  branchial  orifices  are 
pierced  near  these  points.  A  Pyrosoma  may  thus  be  compared  to  a  great 
number  of  stars  of  BotrylU  strung  together,  the  whole  of  which  is  movable. 

The  Mediterranean  and  the  Ocean  produce  large  species,  the  animals  of 
which  are  arranged  with  but  little  regularity.  They  exhibit  a  phosphores- 
cent appearance  during  the  night. 

A  smaller  species  is  also  known  where  the  animals  are  arranged  in  very 
regular  rings. 

The  species  of  the  remainder  that  are  known  are  all  fixed,  and  till 
now  have  been  confounded  with  the  Alcyonia.  The  visceral  bundle 
of  each  individual  is  more  or  less  extended  into  the  common  cartila- 
ginous or  gelatinous  mass,  more  or  less  narrowed  or  dilated  in  cer- 


286  MOLLUSCA. 

tain  points;  but  each  orifice  always  forms  a  little  six-rayed  star  on 
the  surface.     We  unite  them  all  under  the  name  of 

POLYCLINUM. 
Some  of  them  are  extended  over  bodies  like  fleshy  crests.     Others  project 
in  a  conical  or  globular  mass;  or  expand  into  a  disk  comparable  to  that  of 
a  flower  or  of  an  Actinia;  or  are  elongated  into  cylindrical  branches  sup- 
ported by  slender  pedicles,  &c. ;  or  form  parallel  cylinders. 


CLASS  V. 
BRACHIOPODA. 

The  Mollusca  Brachiopoda,  like  the  Acephala,  have  a  bilobed 
mantle  which  is  always  open.  Instead  of  feet  they  are  provided 
with  two  fleshy  arms,  furnished  with  numerous  filaments,  which  they 
can  protrude  from,  and  draw  into  the  shell.  The  mouth  is  between 
the  base  of  the  arms. 

All  the  Brachiopoda  are  invested  with  bivalve  shells,  fixed  and 
immovable.     But  three  genera  are  known. 

LiNGULA,  Brug. 
Two  equal,  flat,  oblong  valves,  the  summits  of  which  are  at  the  extremity 
of  one  of  the  narrow  sides,  gaping  at  the  other  end,  and  attached  between 
the  two  summits  to  a  fleshy  pedicle,  which  suspends  them  to  the  rocks;  the 
arms  become  spirally  convoluted  previously  to  entering  the  shell.  It  ap- 
pears that  the  branchiae  consist  of  small  leaflets,  disposed  around  the  inter- 
nal face  of  each  lobe  of  the  mantle. 

But  a  single  species,  Lingula  anatina,  Cuv.,  is  known.  It  inhabits  the 
Indian  Ocean,  and  has  thin,  horny  and  greenish  valves. 

Terebratula,  Brug. 
Two  unequal  valves  united  by  a  hinge;  the  summit  of  one,  more  salient  than 
the  other,  is  perforated  to  permit  the  passage  of  a  fleshy  pedicle  which  at- 
taches the  shell  to  rocks,  madrepores,  other  shells,  &c.  Internally,  a  small 
bony  piece  of  frame-work  is  observed,  that  is  sometimes  very  complex, 
composed  of  two  branches  which  articulate  with  the  unperforated  valve  and 
that  support  two  arms  edged  all  round  with  a  long,  close  fringe,  between 
which,  on  the  side  next  to  the  large  valve,  is  a  third,  simply  membranous 


BRACHIOPODA.  287 

and  much  longer  appendage,  usually  spirally  convoluted,  and  edged,  like 
the  arms,  with  a  fine  and'close  fringe.  The  mouth  is  a  small  vertical  fiss- 
ure between  these  tliree  large  appendages.  The  principal  part  of  the 
body,  situated  near  the  hinge,  contains  the  numerous  muscles  which  reach 
from  one  valve  to  tlie  other,  and  between  them  are  the  viscera,  which  oc- 
cupy but  little  space. 

Numberless  Terebratulae  are  found  fossil  or  petrified,  in  certain  secondary 
strata  of  ancient  formations.     The  living  species  are  less  numerous. 

The  shell  of  some  is  transversely  broader  or  longer,  in  a  direction  per- 
pendicular to  the  hinge,  with  an  entire  or  emarginated  contour,  with  two 
or  several  lobes;  some  of  them  are  even  triangular;  the  surface  is  smooth, 
sulcated  in  radii,  or  veined;  they  are  thick  or  thin,  and  even  diaphanous. 
In  several  of  them,  in  lieu  of  the  hole  in  the  summit  of  the  thin  valve,  there 
is  a  notch,  and  this  notch  is  sometimes  partly  formed  by  two  accessory  pie- 
ces, &c.  It  is  probable  that  when  better  known  their  animals  will  present 
generic  differences.     Already  in  the 

Spibifeh,  Sowerby, 
Two  large  cones  have  been  recognized,  formed  of  a  spiral  thread,  which 
appear  to  have  supported  the  animal.    In 

Thecidea,  Def. 
The  pedicle  seems  to  have  been  incorporated  with  the  small  valve. 

Okbicula,  Cuv. 
he  Orbiculsc  have  two  unequal  valves,  one  of  which,  that  is  round  and  coni- 
cal when  viewed  by  itself,  resembles  the  shell  of  a  PateUa;  the  other  is  flat 
and  fixed  to  a  rock.     The  arms  of  the  animal, — Criopus,  Poli, — are  ciliated 
and  spiraUy  recurved  hke  that  of  the  Lingulae. 

Crania,  Brug. 

Should  be  approximated  to  the  Orbiculee.  The  arms  of  the  animal  are 
also  ciliated,  but  the  shells  have  deep  and  round  internal  muscular  impress- 
ions, that  have  caused  it  to  be  compared  to  the  figure  of  a  skull. 

One  of  them  inhabits  European  seas;  Anomia  craniolaris,  L.  Several  are 
fossil;  such  as  the  Cran,  antiqua,  and  the  others  of  which  M.  Hceninghaus 
has  given  an  excellent  Monograph. 


288  MOLLUSCA. 

CLASS  VI. 
CIRRHOPODA. 

[Lepas  and  Triton,  Lin,"] 
The  Cirrhopoda,  in  several  points  of  view,  are  intermediate  be- 
tween this  division  and  that  of  the  Articulata.  Enveloped  by  a 
mantle,  and  testaceous  pieces  which  frequently  resemble  those  seen 
in  several  of  the  Acephala,  their  mouths  are  furnished  with  lateral 
jaws,  and  the  abdomen  with  filaments  named  cirri,  arranged  in  pairs, 
composed  of  a  multitude  of  little  ciliated  articulations,  and  corres- 
ponding to  a  sort  of  feet  or  fins  similar  to  those  observed  under  the 
tail  of  several  of  the  Crustacea.  Their  heart  is  situated  in  the  dor- 
sal region,  and  the  branchiae  on  the  sides;  the  nervous  system  forms 
a  series  of  ganglions  on  the  abdomen.  These  cirri,  however,  may 
be  considered  as  analogous  to  the  articulated  appendages  of  certain 
species  of  Teredo,  while  the  ganglions  in  some  respects  are  mere 
repetitions  of  the  posterior  ganglion  of  the  bivalves.  The  position 
of  these  animals  in  the  shell  is  such,  that  the  mouth  is  at  the  bottom 
and  the  cirri  near  the  orifice.  These  animals  are  always  fixed. 
LinnaBus  comprised  them  all  in  one  genus,  Lepas,  which  Bru- 
gieres  divided  into  two,  that  have  in  their  turn  been  subdivided. 

Anatifa,  Brug. 

A  compressed  mantle,  open  on  one  side  and  suspended  to  a  fleshy  tube,  va- 
rying greatly  as  to  the  number  of  testaceous  pieces  with  wliichit  is  furnish- 
ed; twelve  pair  of  cirri,  sis  on  each  side,  those  nearest  to  the  mouth  being 
the  thickest  and  shortest.  The  branchix  are  elongated  pyramidal  appen- 
dages that  adhere  to  the  external  base  of  the  whole  of  the  cirri,  or  of  part 
of  them. 

The  two  principal  valves,  of  the  most  numerous  species  (Pentaiasmis, 
Leach),  resemble  those  of  a  Mytilus.  The  Anatifae  adhere  to  rocks,  piles, 
keels  of  vessels,  8ic. 

Balanus,  Brug. 
The  principal  part  of  the  shell  of  the  Balani  consists  of  a  testaceous  tube 


CIRRHOPODA.  289 

attached  to  various  bodies,  the  aperture  of  which  is  more  or  less  closed  by 
two  or  four  valves.  This  tube  is  formed  of  various  pieces,  which  appear 
to  be  detached,  and  separated  in  proportion  as  the  growth  of  the  animal 
requires  it.  The  branchiae,  mouth,  articulated  tentacula,  and  the  tube, 
differ  but  little  from  those  of  the  Anatifae.  In  Balancs  properly  so  called, 
the  tubular  portion  is  a  truncated  cone  formed  of  six  projecting  pieces, 
separated  by  as  many  depressed  ones,  three  of  which  are  narrower  than 
the  others.  Their  base  is  usually  formed  of  a  calcareous  lamina,  and  fixed  to 
various  bodies.     The  four  valves  of  their  operculum  close  the  orifice  exactly. 

The  rocks,  shells,  &c.,  on  the  coast  of  Europe,  are,  in  a  manner,  covered 
with  a  species  of  Balanus,  the  Lepas  balanus,  L. 

Naturalists  have  separated  the  Acaatx,  most  of  which  are  found  in  sponge, 
the  Coniae,  Blainv.,  the  Asemx,  Ranzani,  the  Pyrgomae,  Savigny,  the  Qdho- 
siae,  Ranzani,  the  Creusias,  Leach,  and  the  Diadema,  Ranz. 


2  M 


290 


THIRD  GREAT  DIVISION  OF   THE   ANIMAL 
KINGDOM. 

ANIMALIA  ARTICULATA. 

This  third  general  form  is  as  well  characterised  as  that  of  the 
Vertebrata;  the  skeleton  is  not  internal  as  in  the  latter,  neither  is  it 
annihilated  as  in  the  Mollusca,  the  articulated  rings  which  encir- 
cle the  body,  and  frequently  the  limbs,  supply  the  place  of  it,  and 
as  they  are  usually  hard,  they  furnish  to  the  powers  of  motion  all 
requisite  points  of  support,  so  that  here,  as  among  the  Vertebrata, 
we  find  the  walk,  the  run,  the  leap,  natation  and  flight.  Those  fa- 
milies only  are  restricted  to  reptation  which  are  either  deprived  of 
feet,  or  in  which  the  articulations  are  membranous  and  soft.  This 
external  position  of  the  hard  parts,  and  the  internal  one  of  the  mus- 
cles, reduce  each  articulation  to  the  form  of  a  sheath,  and  allow  it 
but  two  kinds  of  motion.  When  connected  with  the  neighbouring 
parts  by  a  firm  joint,  as  happens  in  the  limbs,  it  is  fixed  there  by  two 
points,  and  can  only  move  by  gynglymus,  that  is,  in  one  single 
plane,  a  disposition  which  requires  a  greater  number  of  joints  to 
produce  a  same  variety  of  motion.  A  greater  loss  of  muscular 
power  is  also  the  result,  and  consequently  more  general  weakness 
in  each  animal,  in  proportion  to  its  size. 

But  the  parts  which  compose  the  body  are  not  always  articulated 
in  this  way;  most  generally  they  are  only  united  by  flexible  mem- 
branes, or  they  fit  into  each  other,  and  then  their  motions  are  more 
various,  but  have  not  the  same  force. 


ARTICULATA.  291 

The  system  of  organs  in  which  the  Articulata  resemble  each  other 
the  most,  is  that  of  the  nerves. 

Their  brain,  which  is  placed  on  the  oesophagus,  and  furnishes 
nerves  to  the  parts  adhering  to  the  head,  is  very  small.  Two  cords 
which  embrace  the  oesophagus  are  extended  along  the  abdomen, 
and  united  at  certain  distances  by  double  knots  or  ganglia,  whence 
arise  the  nerves  of  the  body  and  limbs.  Each  of  these  ganglia 
seems  to  fulfil  the  functions  of  a  brain  to  the  surrounding  parts,  and 
to  preserve  their  sensibiHty  for  a  certain  length  of  time,  when  the 
animal  has  been  divided.  If  to  this  we  add,  that  the  jaws  of  these 
animals,  when  they  have  any,  are  always  lateral  and  move  from 
without  inwardly,  and  not  from  above  downwards,  and  that  no  dis- 
tinct organ  of  smell  has  hitherto  been  discovered  in  them,  we  shall 
have  expressed  all  that  can  be  said  of  them  in  general.  The  exis- 
tence however  of  the  organs  of  hearing,  the  existence,  number  and 
form  of  those  of  sight,  the  kind  of  respiration,  the  existence  of  the 
organs  of  circulation,  and  even  the  colour  of  the  blood  present  great 
differences,  which  must  be  noticed  in  the  various  subdivisions. 


Distribution  of  the  Articulata  into  four  Classes. 

The  Articulata,  whose  mutual  relations  are  as  varied  as  numer- 
ous, present  however  four  principal  forms,  either  internal  or  ex- 
ternal. 

The  Annulata,  Lam.,  or  Red-blooded  Worms,  Cuv.,  consti- 
tute the  first.  Their  blood,  which  is  generally  red,  like  that  of  the 
Vertebrata,  circulates  in  a  double  and  closed  system  of  arteries  and 
veins,  sometimes  furnished  with  one  or  several  visible  hearts  or 
fleshy  ventricles.  Respiration  is  performed  in  organs  which  are 
sometimes  developed  externally,  and  at  others  remain  on  the  surface 
of  the  skin  or  dip  into  its  interior.  Their  body,  more  or  less  elon- 
gated, is  always  divided  into  numerous  rings,  the  first  of  which, 
called  the  head,  scarcely  differs  from  the  rest,  except  in  the  presence 
of  the  mouth  and  the  principal  organs  of  the  senses.  The  branchise 
of  several  are  uniformly  distributed  along  their  body  or  on  its  mid- 
dle; in  others,  which  are  generally  those  that  inhabit  tubes,  they  are 
all  placed  anteriorly.  They  never  have  articulated  feet,  but  most 
of  them,  in  lieu  thereof,  are  furnished  with  setae  or  fasciculi  of  stiff 
and  movable  hairs.     The  organs  of  their  mouth  sometimes  consist 


292  ARTICULATA. 

of  jaws,  more  or  less  strong,  and  at  others  of  a  simple  tube,  those  of 
the  external  senses  in  fleshy  and  sometimes  articulated  tentacula, 
and  in  certain  blackish  points,  considered  as  eyes,  but  which  do  not 
exist  in  all  the  species. 

The  Crustacea  constitute  the  second  form  or  class  of  articula- 
ted animals.  They  are  provided  with  articulated  and  more  or  less 
complex  limbs,  attached  to  the  sides  of  the  body.  Their  blood  is 
white:  it  circulates  by  means  of  a  fleshy  ventricle  placed  in  the  back, 
which  receives  it  from  the  branchiae,  situated  on  the  sides  of  the 
body,  or  under  its  posterior  portion,  and  to  which  it  returns  by  a 
ventral  and  sometimes  double  canal.  In  the  last  or  lower  species, 
the  heart  or  dorsal  ventricle  is  itself  extended  into  a  tube.  They 
all  have  antennsB  or  articulated  filaments  inserted  in  the  fore-part  of 
the  head,  usually  four  in  number,  several  transverse  jaws  and  two 
compound  eyes.     A  distinct  ear  is  only  to  be  found  in  some  species. 

The  Aeachnides  form  the  third  class  of  the  Articulata.  Their 
head  and  thorax,  as  in  many  of  the  Crustacea,  are  united  in  one 
single  piece,  furnished,  on  each  side,  with  articulated  limbs;  but 
their  principal  viscera  are  inclosed  in  an  abdomen  connected  to  the 
posterior  portion  of  that  thorax.  Their  mouth  is  armed  with  jaws, 
and  their  head  furnished  with  ocelli,  that  vary  as  to  number,  but 
the  antennae  are  always  wanting.  Their  circulation  is  effected  by 
a  dorsal  vessel,  which  gives  off"  arterial  branches,  and  receives  venous 
ones  from  them;  but  their  mode  of  respiration  varies,  some  of  them 
still  having  true  pulmonary  organs  which  open  on  the  sides  of  the 
abdomen,  while  others  receive  air  by  tracheae,  like  Insects.  In  both 
of  them,  however,  we  observe  lateral  openings  or  true  stigmata. 

The  Insecta  constitute  the  fourth  class  of  the  Articulata,  and 
the  most  numerous  of  all  the  animal  kingdom.  With  the  exception 
of  some  genera,  the  Myriapoda,  in  which  the  body  is  divided  into 
numerous  and  nearly  equal  parts,  it  is  always  divided  into  three  por- 
tions: the  head,  furnished  with  the  antennae,  eyes  and  mouth;  the 
thorax^  to  which  are  appended  the  feet  and  wings,  when  they  exist; 
and  the  abdomen,  which  is  suspended  behind  the  thorax  and  contains 
the  principal  viscera.  Those  which  have  wings  only  receive  them  at 
a  certain  age,  and  frequently  pass  through  two  more  or  less  different 
forms  before  they  assume  that  of  the  winged  insect.  In  all  their 
states  they  respire  by  trachese;  that  is,  by  elastic  vessels  which  re- 
ceive air  through  stigmata  pierced  on  their  sides,  and  distribute  it 


ARTICULATA.  293 

by  infinite  ramifications  to  every  part  of  the  body.  A  vestige  only 
of  a  heart  is  perceptible,  consisting  of  a  dorsal  vessel  which  experi- 
ences an  alternate  contraction  and  dilatation,  but  to  which  no  branch 
has  ever  been  discovered,  so  that  we  are  forced  to  believe  that  nu- 
trition is  efl^ected  in  this  class  of  animals  by  imbibition.  It  is,  pro- 
bably, this  sort  of  nutrition  which  necessitated  the  kind  of  respiration 
proper  to  Insects;  for  as  the  nutritive  fluid  is  not  contained  in  vess- 
els, and  could  not  be  directed  towards  pulmonary  organs  in  search 
of  air,  it  was  requisite  that  this  air  should  be  difTused  throughout 
the  body  to  reach  the  fluid.  This  is  also  the  reason  why  Insects 
have  no  secretory  glands,  but  are  provided  with  mere  spongy  vess- 
els, which,  by  the  extent  of  their  surface,  appear  to  absorb  the  pe- 
culiar juices  they  are  to  produce,  from  the  mass  of  the  nutritive  fluid. 

Insects  vary  infinitely  as  to  the  form  of  the  organs  of  the  mouth, 
and  those  of  digestion,  as  well  as  in  their  industry  and  mode  of  life. 

The  Crustacea  and  Arachnides  were  long  united  with  the  Tnsecta 
under  one  common  name,  and  resemble  them  in  many  points  of 
their  external  form,  in  the  disposition  of  their  organsof  motion,  and 
of  the  sensations,  and  even  in  those  of  manducation. 


CLASS  I. 
ANNULATA. 

The  Annulata  are  the  only  invertebrate  animals  that  have  red 
blood.     It  circulates  in  a  double  system  of  complicated  vessels. 

Their  nervous  system  consists  in  a  double  knotted  cord,  like  that 
of  Insects. 

Their  body  is  soft,  more  or  less  elongated,  and  divided  frequently 
into  a  considerable  number  of  segments,  or  at  least  of  transverse 
plicae. 

They  nearly  all  inhabit  the  water — theLumbrici  or  Earth-worms 
excepted;  several  penetrate  into  holes  at  the  bottom,  or  construct 
tubes  there  with  the  ooze  or  other  matters,  or  even  exude  a  calca- 
reous substance,  which  envelopes  them  with  a  sort  of  tubular  shell. 


294  ANNULATA. 

Division  of  the  Annulata  into  three  Orders. 

This  class,  which  contains  but  few  species,  presents  a  sufficient 
basis  of  division  in  its  organs  of  respiration. 

The  branchias  of  some  resemble  tufts  or  arbusculee,  attached  to 
the  head  or  anterior  part  of  the  body:  they,  nearly  all,  inhabit  tubes. 
We  will  call  them  the  Tubicola. 

Those  of  others  resemble  trees,  tufts,  laminae  or  tubercles  in 
which  vessels  ramify,  and  are  placed  on  the  middle  of  the  body: 
most  of  them  inhabit  mud  or  swim  in  the  ocean,  the  smaller  por- 
tion being  furnished  with  tubes.     We  name  them  the  Dorsibran- 

CHIATA. 

Others  again  have  no  apparent  branchiae,  and  respire,  either  by 
the  surface  of  the  skin,  or  as  some  authors  opine,  by  the  internal 
cavities.  Most  of  them  live  free  in  mud  or  water;  some  of  them 
only,  in  humid  earth.     They  are  the  Abranchiata. 

The  genera  of  the  first  two  orders  are  all  furnished  with  stiff  setae, 
of  a  metallic  colour,  that  issue  from  their  sides,  sometimes  simply, 
and  at  others  in  fasciculi,  which  serve  in  lieu  of  feet;  but  there  are 
some  genera  in  the  third  order  which  are  deprived  of  that  support. 

The  head  of  the  Annulata  of  the  two  first  orders  is  generally  fur- 
nished with  tentacula  or  filaments,  to  which,  notwithstanding  their 
fleshy  nature,  some  modern  naturalists  give  the  name  of  antennae; 
and  several  genera  of  the  second  and  third  are  marked  with  black 
and  shining  points,  usually  considered  as  eyes.  The  organization 
of  their  mouth  varies  greatly. 


ORDER  I. 

TUBICOLA. 

Some  of  the  Tubicola  form  a  calcareous,  homogeneous  tube,  pro- 
bably the  result  of  transudation,  like  the  shell  of  the  Mollusca,  with 
which  however  they  have  no  muscular  adhesion;  others  construct 
one  by  agglutinating  grains  of  sand,  fragments  of  shells  and  particles 
of  mud,  by  means  of  a  membrane,  also  unquestionably  transuded; 


TUBICOLA.  295 

the  tube  of  others  again  is  entirely  membranous  or  horny.  To  the 
first  belongs  the  genus 

Serpvla,  Lin. 

The  calcareous  tubes  of  the  Serpulse  twine  round  and  cover  stones,  shells, 
and  all  submarine  bodies.  The  section  of  these  tubes  is  sometimes  round, 
and  sometimes  angiilar,  according  to  the  species. 

The  body  of  the  animal  is  composed  of  numerous  segments;  its  anterior 
portion  is  spread  into  a  disk,  armed  on  each  side  with  several  bundles  of 
coarse  hairs,  and  on  each  side  of  its  mouth  is  a  tuft  of  branchije,  shaped  like 
a  fan,  and  usually  tinged  with  bright  colours.  At  the  base  of  each  tuft  is  a 
fleshy  filament,  one  of  which,  either  on  the  right  or  left,  indifferently,  is 
always  elongated,  and  dilated  at  its  extremity  into  a  variously  formed  disk 
which  serves  as  an  operculum,  and  seals  up  the  orifice  of  the  tube  when  the 
animal  has  withdrawn  into  it. 

Serp.  contortuplicata.  The  most  common  species;  its  tubes  are  round, 
three  lines  in  diameter,  and  twisted.  The  operculum  is  infundibuliform, 
and  the  branchise  ai*e  frequently  of  a  beautiful  red  colour,  or  variegated 
with  yellow,  violet,  &c.  Vases  or  other  objects  thrown  into  the  sea  are  soon 
covered  by  its  tubes. 

Sabella,  Cuv. 
The  same  kind  of  body,  and  similar  flabelliform  branchiae,  as  the  Serpulse; 
but  the  two  fleshy  filaments  adhering  to  these  branchiae  both  terminate  in 
a  point,  and  without  forming  an  operculum;  sometimes  they  are  even  want- 
ing. The  tube  of  the  Sabellae  is  most  commonly  composed  of  granules  of 
clay  or  mud,  and  is  rarely  calcareous. 

The  species  known  are  large,  and  their  fan-like  branchiae  remarkable  for 
their  delicacy  and  brilliancy. 

Sah.  protula,  Cuv.  A  large  and  splendid  species  inhabiting  the  Mediter- 
ranean. Its  tube  is  calcareous  like  that  of  the  Serpulae,  its  branchiae  orange 
coloured,  &c. 

Terebella,  Cuv. 
The  Terebelke,  like  most  of  the  Sabellae,  inhabit  an  artificial  tube,  but  it  is 
composed  of  grains  of  sand  and  fragments  of  shells;  their  body,  moreover,  has 
fewer  rings,  and  their  head  is  otherwise  decorated.  Numerous  filiform  and 
extremely  extensible  tentacula  surround  their  mouth;  their  branchise,  placed 
on  the  neck,  are  not  infundibuliform,  but  resemble  arbusculae. 

Amphitrite,  Cuv. 
The  Amphitrites  are  easily  recognized  by  the  golden  coloured  setae,  arranged 
like  a  crown,  or  the  teeth  of  a  comb,  in  one  or  two  rows,  on  the   anterior 
part  of  their  head,  where  they  probably  serve  as  a  means  of  defence,  or 
perhaps  enable  the  animal  to  crawl,  or  to  collect  the  materials  of  its  tube. 


296  ANNULATA. 

Numerous  tentacula  encircle  the  mouth,  and  on  each  side  of  the  fore  part 
of  the  back  are  pectiniformbranchije. 

Some  of  them  construct  light  tubes  of  a  regularly  conical  figure,  which 
they  carry  about  with  them.  Their  gUded  setse  form  two  combs,  whose 
teeth  incline  downwards.  Their  capacious  and  frequently  flexed  intestine 
is  usually  filled  with  sand. 

Syphostoma,  Otto. 

On  the  superior  part  of  each  articulation,  is  inserted  a  fasciculus  of  fine  setae, 
and  on  the  inferior  a  simple  seta,  and  on  the  anterior  extremity  two  fasci- 
culi of  strong  golden  coloured  setae.  Under  these  setaceous  appendages 
is  the  mouth,  preceded  by  a  sucker  surrounded  by  numerous  soft  filaments, 
which  may  very  possibly  be  branchiae,  and  accompanied  by  two  fleshy  ten- 
tacula. The  knotted  meduUary  cord  is  seen  through  the  skin.  They  live 
buried  in  mud.     Hitherto,  the  genus 

Dentalitjm,  Lin. 
Has  always  been  placed  in  this  vicinity.  The  shell  is  an  elongated,  arcua- 
ted cone  open  at  both  ends,  and  has  been  compared  to  the  tusk  of  an  ele- 
phant in  miniature.  The  recent  observations  of  M.  Savigny  and  those  of 
M.  Deshayes  especially,  have,  however,  rendered  this  classification  ex- 
tremely doubtful. 


ORDER  II. 
DORSIBRANCHIATA. 

The  organs  of  the  Dorsibranchiata,  and  the  branchiae  in  particu- 
lar, are  equally  distributed  along  the  whole  of  the  body,  or  at  least 
of  its  middle  portion. 

At  the  head  of  the  order  we  will  place  those  genera  in  which  the 
organs  are  most  completely  developed. 

Arekicola,  Lam. 
Branchiae,  resembling  small  trees,  on  the  rings  of  the  middle  part  of  the 
body  only;  the  mouth,  a  fleshy  and  more  or  less  dilatable  proboscis,  and 
neitlier  teeth,  tentacula,  nor  eyes  visible.  The  posterior  extremity  not  only 
wants  the  branchiae,  but  the  setaceous  fasciculi  with  which  the  rest  of  the 
body  is  furnished;  the  cirri  totally  deficient. 

Aren.  piscatorum.  Lam.  Very  common  in  the  sand  on  the  sea  shore, 
where  it  is  disinterred  by  the  fishermen,  who  use  it  as  bait.    It  is  about  a 


DORSIBRANCHIATA.  297 

foot  long-,  of  a  reddish  colour,  and  diffuses  an  abundant  yellowish  liquid 
when  touched.    It  has  thirteen  paii-s  of  brancliiae. 

Amphinome,  Brug. 
A  pair  of  more  or  less  complex,  tufted  or  plumose  branchise  on  each  ring-  of 
the  body,  and  to  each  of  the  feet  two  fasciculi  of  separate  setx,  and  two 
cirri;  no  jaws  to  tJie  proboscis.     The  Amphinomes  are  divided  by  M.  Sa- 
vigny  into  Chlgeia,  Pleione,  Etjpuhosine  and  Hippokoe. 

Eunice,  Cuv. 
The  branchise  are  also  plumose,  but  the  proboscis  is  well  armed  with  three 
pairs  of  differently  formed  horny  jaws;  each  foot  is  furnished  with  two  cirri 
and  a  bundle  of  setse,  there  are  five  tentacula  above  the  mouth  and  two  on 
the  nape.     In  some  species  only  do  we  find  two  small  eyes. 

Eun.  gigantea,  Cuv.  The  largest  of  the  known  Annulata,  being  upwards 
of  four  feet  in  length.     From  the  sea  of  the  Antilles. 

After  these  genera  with  complex  branchiae,  we  may  place  those 
where  they  are  reduced  to  simple  laminae  or  slight  tubercles,  or  in 
which  they  are  even  replaced  by  cirri. 

Some  of  them  are  still  allied  to  the  Eunices,  by  the  strong  arma- 
ture of  their  proboscis,  and  their  azygous  antennae.     Such  is  the 

Ltsidice,  Sav. 
Where,  with  jaws  similar  to  those  of  the  Eunices,  and  even  more  nume- 
rous and  frequently  azygous,  the  only  branchiae  consist  of  three  tentacula 
and  the  cirri. 

Agiatiha,  Sav. 
The  jaws  of  the  Aglaurse  are  also  numerous  and  azygous,  consisting  of 
seven,  nine,  &c.;  but  theh*  tentacula  are  either  wanting  or  completely  con- 
cealed; the  branchiae  are  also  reduced  to  cirri. 

Nereis,  Cuv. 

The  true  Nereides  have  an  even  number  of  tentacula,  attached  to  the  sides  of 
the  base  of  the  head,  and  a  little  further  forwards  two  others  that  are  biarti- 
culate,  between  which  are  two  simple  ones.  Then*  brancliise  consist  of  small 
laminx  between  which  is  spread  a  net-work  of  vessels;  each  foot  is  also 
furnished  with  two  tubercles,  two  fasciculi  of  setse,  one  cirrus  above,  and  an- 
other beneath. 

In  the  vicinity  of  these  Nereides  are  grouped  several  genera  in 
which  the  body  is  also  slender,  and  the  branchiai  are  reduced  to 

2  N 


298  ANNUL AT A. 

simple  laminae,  or  even  simple  filaments  or  tubercles.     The  jaws  or 
tentacula  are  wanting  in  some  of  them. 

Phtiiodoce,  Sav. 
The  Phylhcbces,  like  the  true  Nereides,  have  an  even  number  of  tenta- 
cula on  the  sides  of  the  head,  and  four  or  five  small  additional  ones  before. 
They  are  furnished  with  eyes;  their  large  proboscis,  v/hich  is  studded  with 
a  circle  of  very  short  fleshy  tubercles,  presents  no  jaws,  and,  what  particu- 
larly distinguishes  them,  their  branchiae  resemble  broad  leaves,  arranged  in 
a  single  row  on  each  side  of  the  body,  and  overlapping  each  other;  finely 
ramified  vessels  are  distributed  over  them. 

Alciopa,  Aud.  and  M.  Edw. 
The  mouth  and  tentacula  nearly  similar  to  those  of  the  Phyllodoces;  but 
thefeet,  independently  of  the  tubercle  which  supports  the  setae  and  the 
two  fohaceous  cirri  or  branchis,  are  furnished  with  two  branchial  tubercles 
which  occupy  their  superior  and  inferior  edges. 

Spio,  Fab.  and  Gm. 
The  body  slender;  two  very  long  tentacula  which  have  the  appearance  of 
antennae;  eyes  in  the  head  and  on  each  side  of  every  segment  of  the  body; 
branchiae  in  the  form  of  a  simple  filament.     They  are  small  worms  from  the 
Arctic  Ocean  that  inhabit  membranous  tubes. 

Smis,  Sav. 
An  odd  number  of  tentacula  articulated  like  the  beads  of  a  rosary,  as  well 
as  the  superior  cirri  of  the  feet,  which  are  simple  and  have  but  a  single  bun- 
dle of  setae.    It  appears  that  there  is  some  variety  relative  to  the  existence 
of  the  jaws. 

Gltcera,  Sav. 
The  Glycerse  are  recognized  by  their  head,  which  is  a  fleshy  and  conical 
point,    resembhng  a  small  horn,   and  divided  at   the  summit  into   four 
scarcely  visible  tentacula.     The  proboscis  of  some  still  presents  jaws;  in 
others,  they  are  said  to  be  imperceptible. 

Nefhthts,  Cuv. 
The  proboscis  of  the  Phyllodoces,  but  no  tentacula;  two  bundles  of  widely 
separated  setae  on  each  foot,  between  which  is  a  cirrus. 

LuMBKiNERA,  Blainv. 
The  tentacula  wanting;  but  a  single  small  forked  tubercle,  from  which  issues 
a  little  bundle  of  setae,  on  each  articulation  of  the  elongated  body.    If  there 
be  any  external  organ  of  respiration,  it  can  only  consist  of  an  upper  lobe  of 
this  tubercle. 


DORSIBRANCHIATA.  299 

Ahicia,  Sav. 
The  teeth  and  tentacula  wanting;  two  ranges  of  lamellated  cirri  on  the 
back  of  the  elongated  body;  anterior  feet  furnished  with  notched  crests  not 
found  on  the  others. 

Hesione,  Lam. 

A  short  thick  body  composed  of  but  few  and  feebly  marked  rings;  a  very 
lo'ig  cirrus,  that  probably  exercises  the  functions  of  branchiae,  on  the  top 
of  each  foot,  which  has  another  beneath  with  a  bundle  of  setae;  a  large  pro- 
boscis with  neither  tentacula  nor  jaws. 

Several  species  are  found  in  the  Mediterranean. 

Ophelina,  Sav. 

The  body  thick  and  short,  with  feebly  marked  rings  and  scarcely  visible 
setae;  long  cirri  in  lieu  of  branchiae  on  two  thirds  of  its  length;  palate  of  the 
mouth  with  a  dentated  crest;  the  lips  surrounded  with  tentacula,  of  which 
the  two  superior  are  the  largest. 

CiRRHATULus,  Lam. 

The  branchiae  consisting  of  a  very  long  filament;  two  small  bundles  of  setae, 
to  each  of  the  articulations  of  the  body,  which  are  numerous  and  compact; 
a  series  of  long  filaments  round  the  nape.  The  slightly  marked  head  has 
neither  tentacula  nor  jaws. 

Palmyra,  Sav. 
The  Palmyrx  are  recognized  by  their  superior  fasciculi,  the  setae  of  which 
are  large,  flattened,  flabeUiform,  and  glisten  like  highly  polished  gold;  their 
inferior  fasciculi  are  small;  their  cirri  and  branchiae  feebly  marked.  They 
have  an  elongated  body,  two  extended  tentacula,  and  three  very  small  ones. 
Palm,  aurifera,  Sav.  The  only  species  known;  it  is  from  c>ne  to  two 
inches  in  length,  and  is  found  at  the  Isle  of  France. 

Aphrodita,  Lin. 
This  genus  is  easily  known  by  the  two  longitudinal  ranges  of  broad  mem- 
branous scales  that  cover  the  back,  to  which,   through  a  very  groundless 
assimilation,  the  name  of  elytra  has  been  given,  and  under  which,  their  bran- 
chiae, in  the  form  of  fleshy  crests,  are  concealed. 

Their  body  is  usually  flattened,  and  shorter  and  broader  than  in  the  other 
Annulata.  Their  extremely  thick  and  muscular  cESophagus  is  susceptible 
of  being  protruded  like  a  proboscis.     M.  Savigny  distinguishes 

Haiithea,  Sav. 
Where  there  are  three  tentacula,  a  small  crest  between  two  of  them,  and 
where  the  jaws  are  wanting. 
A  species  is  found  on  the  coast  of  France,  which,  with  respect  to  its  co- 


300  ANNULATA. 

louring,  is  one  of  the  most  splendid  of  all  animals — the  Aphrodita  aculeata, 
L..  It  is  oval,  from  six  to  eight  inches  in  length,  and  from  two  to  three  in 
breadth.  The  scales  on  its  back  are  covered  and  concealed  by  a  sort  of  stuff 
resembling  tow,  which  arises  from  the  sides.  From  the  latter  also  spring 
groups  of  stout  spines,  which  partly  transfix  the  tow,  and  fasciculi  of  flexu- 
ous  setae  of  a  splendid  golden  colour,  whose  changeable  tints  rival  those  of 
the  rainbow.  They  are  not  inferior  in  beauty  to  the  plumage  of  the  Hum- 
mingbii'd,  or  to  the  lustre  of  the  richest  gems.  Further  down  is  a  tubercle 
from  which  arise  three  groups  of  spines,  of  as  many  different  diameters,  and 
finally,  a  fleshy  cone.  There  are  forty  of  these  tubercles  on  each  side,  and 
between  the  two  first  are  two  small  fleshy  tentacida.  There  are  fifteen 
pairs  of  wide,  and  sometimes  inflated  scales  on  the  back,  and  fifteen  small 
branchial  crests  on  each  side. 

PoLTNOE,  Sav. 
Where  there  is  none  of  this  tow  on  the  back;  they  have  five  tentacula, 
and  their  proboscis  is  furnished  with  strong  and  horny  jaws. 

This  is  the  only  situation  we  can  assign  to  a  new  and  very  singu- 
lar genus  which  I  call 

ChjEtopteeus,  Cuv. 

The  mouth  has  neither  jaws  nor  proboscis,  and  is  furnished  above  with  a 
lip  to  which  are  attached  two  tentacula.  Next  comes  a  disk  with  nine  pairs 
of  feet,  followed  by  a  pair  of  long  silky  fasciculi  resembling  wings.  The 
lamellated  branchiae  are  rather  beneath  the  body  than  above  it,  and  extend 
along  its  middle. 

Chastopterus  pergamentaceus,  Cuv.  This  species,  which  is  found  at  the 
Antilles,  is  from  eight  to  ten  inches  in  length,  and  inhabits  a  tube  resemb- 
ling parchment. 


ORDER  III. 

ABRANCHIATA. 

The  Abranchiata  have  no  apparent  external  organ  of  respiration 
whatever,  and  appear  to  respire,  some,  like  the  Lumbrici,  by  the 
entire  surface  of  the  skin,  and  others,  like  the  Hirudines,  by  internal 
cavities.  They  have  a  closed  circulating  system,  usually  filled  with 
red  blood,  and,  like  all  the  Annulata,  a  knotted  nervous  cord. 
Some  are  also  provided  with  setae  which  enable  them  to  crawl,  and 


ABRANCHIATA.  301 

others  are  deprived  of  them.     This  has  caused  their  division  into 
two  families. 


FAMILY  I. 

ABRANCHIATA  SETIGERA. 

This  first  family  comprises  the  Lumbrici  and  Naides  of  Linnaeus. 

LuMBEicus,  Lin. 
The  Earth-worms,  as  they  are  commonly  called,  characterized  by  a  long-, 
cylindrical  body,  divided  by  rug-je  into  a  great  number  of  rings,  and  by  an 
edentated  mouth,  necessarily  required  to  be  subdivided. 

LUMBKICUS,    CuV. 

Eyes,  tentacula,  branchiae  and  cirri,  all  wanting.  The  nervous  cord  is  no- 
thing more  than  a  crowded  suite  of  numerous  little  ganglia. 

Every  one  knows  the  Common  Earth-worm — Lumbricus  terrestris,  L.— 
with  a  reddish  body,  that  attains  nearly  a  foot  in  length,  and  which  is  com- 
posed of  upwards  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  rings.  Under  the  sixteenth 
ring  are  two  pores,  the  use  of  which  is  unknown. 

This  animal  traverses  the  soil  in  every  direction,  and  swallows  a  quantity 
of  earth.     It  also  eats  roots,  ligneous  fibres,  animal  fi-agments,  &c. 

Nais,  Lin. 
The  Naides  have  an  elongated  body,  the  rings  of  which  are  less  distinct  than 
in  the  Lumbrici.  They  inhabit  holes  made  by  them  in  the  ooze,  from  which 
one  half  of  their  body  projects  and  is  constantly  in  motion.  Black  points 
are  obser^'ed  on  the  head  of  some  of  them,  which  may  be  taken  for  eyes. 
They  are  small  worms,  whose  power  of  reproduction  is  as  astonishing  as 
that  of  the  Hydrse.     Several  species  are  found  in  the  rivers,  &c.  of  France. 

Climena,  Sav. 
The  Clymenae  also  appear  to  belong  to  this  family.  Their  thick  body  has 
but  few  rings,  which  are  mostly  furnished  with  stout  set»;  a  httle  higher, 
and  near  the  back,  is  a  bundle  of  finer  ones.  There  are  neither  tentacula 
nor  appendages  to  the  head.  Their  posterior  extremity  is  truncated  and 
radiated.     They  inhabit  tubes. 


302  ANNUL AT A. 

FAMILY  II. 

ABRANCHIATA  ASETIGERA. 

The  second  family  consists  of  two  great  genera,  both  of  which 
are  aquatic. 

HiEiTDo,  Lin. 

Leeches  have  an  oblong-,  sometimes  depressed,  transversely  plicated  body; 
the  mouth  is  encircled  by  a  lip,  and  the  posterior  extremity  furnished  with 
a  flattened  disk,  both  of  which  are  well  adapted  for  adhering  to  bodies  by 
a  sort  of  suction,  and  are  the  principal  org-ans  of  locomotion  possessed  by 
these  animals;  for  after  extending-  itself,  the  Leech  fixes  its  anterior  extre- 
mity and  approximates  the  other,  which  in  its  turn  adheres,  to  allow  the  for- 
mer to  be  carried  forward.  In  several  we  observe  on  the  under  part  of  the 
-body  two  series  of  pores,  the  orifices  of  as  many  small  internal  pouches, 
considered  by  some  naturalists  as  organs  of  respiration,  although  they  are 
usually  filled  with,  a  mucous  fluid.  The  intestinal  canal  is  straight,  inflated 
from  space  to  space  for  two-thirds  of  its  length,  where  there  are  two  cjeca. 
The  blood  swallowed  is  preserved  there,  red  and  unchanged,  for  several 
weeks. 

Several  of  them  form  their  eggs  into  a  cocoon,  and  envelope  them  with 
a  fibrous  excretion. 

They  have  been  subdivided  from  characters  principally  drawn  from  the 
organs  of  their  mouth.     In  the 

Sanguisuga,  Sav. 

Or  the  Leech  properly  so  called,  the  superior  lip  of  the  anterior  cup  or 
sucker  is  divided  into  several  segments;  the  aperture  is  transverse  and  con- 
tains three  jaws,  each  edge  of  which  is  armed  with  two  rows  of  very  fine 
teeth,  which  enables  it  to  penetrate]  through  the  skin  without  causing 
a  dangerous  wound.     It  is  marked  with  ten  small  points,  considered  as  eyes. 

We  all  know  the  medicinal  or  Common  Leech — Hirudo  medicinalis,  L., 
that  useful  instrument  for  the  local  abstraction  of  blood.  It  is  usually 
blackish,  with  yellowish  streaks  above,  and  yellowish  with  black  spots  be- 
neath. It  is  found  in  all  stagnant  waters.  The  remaining  divisions  are 
Hxmopsis  (The  Horse  Leech),  Bdella,  Nephelis,  &c.  &c. 

GoRDius,  Lin. 

The  body  resembling  a  thread,  the  only  mark  of  the  articulations  being 
slight, transverse  plicae;  it  has  neither  feet,  branchiae,  nor  tentacula.  Inter- 
nally, however,  a  nervous  system  is  perceptible  in  a  knotted  cord.  Perhaps 
it  will  be  necessary  in  the  end  to  place  them  among  the  cavitary  Intestina, 
like  the  Nemertes. 


ABRANCHIATA.  303 

They  live  in  fresh  water,  in  the  mud,  and  in  inundated  grounds  which 
they  perforate  in  every  direction. 

The  different  species  are  not  yet  well  distinguished;  the  most  common, 
Gordius  aquaticus,  L.,  is  several  inches  in  length,  almost  as  fine  as  a  hair, 
and  brown,  with  blackish  extremities. 


CRUSTACEA,  ARACHNIDES,  AND  INSECTA: 

OR  ARTICULATED  ANIMALS  WITH  ARTICULATED  FEET. 

These  last  three  classes  of  the  Articulata,  which  were  united  by 
Linnaeus  under  the  general  name  o(  Jnsecta,  are  distinguished  by  at 
least  six  articulated  feet.  Each  articulation  is  tubular,  and  contains 
the  muscles  of  the  succeeding  one,  which  always  moves  by  gyngly- 
mus,  that  is,  in  but  one  direction. 

The  first  articulation,  which  attaches  the  foot  to  the  body,  and 
which  is  composed  of  two  pieces,  is  called  the  coxa,  or  hip;  the 
following  one  which  is,  usually,  nearly  in  a  horizontal  position,  the 
femur,  or  thigh;  and  the  third,  generally  vertical,  the  tibia  or  leg. 
To  these  ensues  a  suite  of  small  ones  which  touch  the  ground,  form- 
ing the  true  foot,  or  what  is  denominated  the  tarsus. 

The  hardness  of  the  calcareous  or  horny  envelope  of  the  greater 
number  of  these  animals,  is  owing  to  that  of  the  excretion  which  is 
interposed  between  the  dermis  and  epidermis,  or  what  is  termed  in 
man  the  mucous  tissue.  This  excretion  also  contains  the  bril- 
liant and  varied  colours  with  which  they  are  so  often  decorated. 

They  are  always  furnished  with  eyes,  which  are  of  two  kinds: 
simple  eyes  or  ocelli,  which  resemble  a  very  minute  lens,  generally 
three  in  number,  and  arranged  in  a  triangle  on  the  summit  of  the 
head;  and  compound  eyes,  where  the  surface  is  divided  into  an  in- 
finitude of  different  lenses  cdAled  facets,  to  each  of  which  there  is  a 
corresponding  filament  of  the  optic  nerve.  These  two  kinds  may 
be  either  united  or  separated  according  to  the  genus. 

Other  organs  which  for  the  first  time  are  here  presented  to  us, 
and  which  are  found  in  two  of  these  classes  (the  Crustacea  and  the 
Insecta),  the  antennse,  are  articulated  filaments,  varying  greatly  in 


304  CRUSTACEA,  ARACHNIDES,  INSECTA. 

form,  and  frequently  according  to  the  sex,  attached  to  the  head,  ap- 
pearing to  be  pecuharly  devoted  to  a  delicate  sense  of  touch,  and 
perhaps  to  some  other  kind  of  sensation  of  which  we  have  no  idea, 
but  which  may  refer  to  the  state  of  the  atmosphere. 

These  animals  enjoy  the  sense  of  smell  and  that  of  hearing.  Some 
authors  place  the  seat  of  the  first  in  the  antennae,  others,  in  the  ori- 
fices of  the  tracheae,  and  Marcel  de  Serres,  &c.  in  the  palpi;  neither 
of  these  opinions,  however,  is  corroborated  by  positive  and  conclu- 
sive facts.  As  to  the  second,  it  is  only  in  the  Crustacea  Decapoda 
and  some  few  of  the  Orthoptera,  that  we  can  find  a  visible  ear. 

The  mouth  of  these  animals  presents  a  great  analogy,  which  ex- 
tends to  those  which  can  only  feed  by  the  suction  of  liquid  aliment. 

Those  called  Tritores  or  Grinders  (broyeurs),  on  account  of  their 
having  jaws  fitted  for  triturating  their  food,  always  present  them  in 
lateral  pairs,  placed  one  before  the  other;  the  anterior  pair  are  es- 
pecially called  mandibles;  the  pieces  which  cover  them  before  and 
behind  are  named  lahia^  and  the  front  one,  in  particular,  lahrum. 
The  palpi  are  articulated  filaments  attached  to  the  jaws  or  to  the 
lower  lip,  and  appear  to  be  employed  by  the  animal  in  recognizing 
its  food.  The  form  of  these  various  organs  determines  the  nature 
of  the  regimen  with  as  much  precision  as  the  teeth  of  quadrupeds. 
The  ligula,  or  tongue,  commonly  adheres  to  the  lower  lip.  Some- 
times, in  the  Bees  and  other  Hymenopterous  Insects,  it  is  consider- 
ably elongated,  as  are  also  the  jaws,  forming  a  sort  of  false  probos- 
cis (^promuscis)  at  the  base  of  which  is  the  pharynx,  and  frequently- 
covered  by  a  sort  of  sub-labrum,  styled  by  M.  Savigny  the  epipha- 
rynx.  At  other  times,  in  the  Hemiptera  and  Diptera,  the  mandi- 
bles and  maxillae  are  replaced  by  scaly  pieces  in  the  form  of  setae, 
which  are  received  in  an  elongated  tubular  sheath,  that  is  either 
cylindrical  and  articulated,  or  formed  with  more  less  of  an  elbow, 
and  terminated  by  a  kind  of  lips.  In  this  case  they  constitute  a  true 
proboscis.  In  others  that  also  live  by  suction,  the  Lepidoptera,  the 
maxillas  alone  are  greatly  elongated  and  united,  producing  a  tubular 
setiform  body,  resembling  a  long,  slender,  and  spiral  tongue;  the 
remaining  parts  of  the  mouth  are  considerably  reduced.  Sometimes 
again,  as  in  many  of  the  Crustacea,  the  anterior  feet  approach  the 
maxillae,  assume  their  form,  and  exercise  part  of  their  functions — the 
latter  are  then  said  to  be  multiplied.  It  may  even  happen  that  the 
true  maxillae  become  so  much  reduced,  that  the  maxillary  feet  sup- 


CRUSTACEA,  ARACHNIDES,  INSECTA.  305 

ply  their  place  in  toto.  Whatever  be  the  modifications  of  these 
parts,  however,  they  can  always  be  recognized  and  referred  to  a 
general  type. 


CLASS  I. 
CRUSTACEA. 

The  Crustacea  are  articulated  animals,  with  articulated  feet,  re- 
spiring by  means  of  branchiae,  protected  in  some  by  the  borders  of 
a  shell,  and  external  in  others,  but  which  are  not  inclosed  in  special 
cavities  of  the  body,  and  which  receive  air  from  openings  in  the 
surface  of  the  skin.  Their  circulation  is  double,  and  analogous  to 
that  of  the  Mollusca.  The  blood  is  transmitted  from  the  heart, 
which  is  placed  on  the  back,  to  the  different  parts  of  the  body, 
whence  it  is  sent  to  the  branchiae,  and  thence  back  again  to  the 
heart.  These  branchiee,  sometimes  situated  at  the  base  of  the  feet^ 
or  even  on  them,  and  at  others  on  the  inferior  appendages  of  the 
abdomen,  either  form  pyramids  composed  of  laminae  in  piles,  or  bris- 
tled with  seta3,  or  tufted  filaments  of  simple  ones,  and  even  appear 
in  some  cases  to  consist  wholly  of  hairs. 

The  Crustacea  are  apterous  or  deprived  of  wings,  furnished  with 
compound  eyes,  though  rarely  with  ocelli,  and  usually  with  four  an- 
tennas. They  have  mostly— the  Pascilopoda  excepted — three  pairs 
of  jaws,  the  two  superior  ones,  designated  by  the  name  of  mandibles^ 
included;  as  many  foot-jaws,  the  last  four  of  which,  however,  in  a 
great  many  instances,  become  true  feet;  and  ten  feet  properly  so 
called,  all  terminated  by  a  single  small  nail.  The  mouth,  as  in  In- 
sects, presents  a  labrum  and  a  ligula,  but  no  lower  lip  properly  so 
called,  or  comparable  to  that  of  the  latter;  the  third  pair  of  foot-jaws, 
or  the  first,  closes  the  mouth  externally,  and  replaces  that  part. 

Their  envelope  is  usually  solid,  and  more  or  less  calcareous. 

They  change  their  skin  several  times,  and  generally  preserve  their 

primitive  form  and  natural  activity.     They  are  mostly  carnivorous 

and  aquatic,  and  live  several  years.     They  do  not  attain  their  adult 

2  O 


306  CRUSTACEA. 

state  until  after  casting  their  skin  a  certain  number  of  times.  With 
the  exception  of  a  few  in  which  these  changes  somewhat  influence 
their  primitive  form  and  modify  or  augment  their  locomotive  or- 
gans, they  are  at  birth,  size  apart,  such  as  they  are  always  to  re- 
main. 


Division  of  the  Crustacea  into  Orders. 

The  situation  and  form  of  the  branchiae,  the  mode  in  which  the 
head  is  articulated  with  the  trunk,  the  mobility  or  fixedness  of  the 
eyes,  the  organs  of  manducation,  and  the  teguments,  constitute  the 
basis  of  our  divisions,  and  give  rise  to  the  following  orders. 

We  divide  this  class  into  two  sections,  the  Malacostbaca,  and 
the  Entomosteaca. 

The  first  are  usuajly  furnished  with  very  solid  teguments,  of  a 
calcareous  nature,  and  with  ten  or  fourteen  feet,  generally  unguicu- 
lated.  The  mouth,  situated  in  the  ordinary  place,  is  composed  of 
a  labrum,  tongue,  two  mandibles  (frequently  furnished  with  palpi), 
and  two  pairs  of  maxillas  covered  by  the  foot-jaws.  In  a  great 
number  each  eye  is  placed  on  an  articulated  and  movable  pedicle, 
and  the  branchiee  are  concealed  under  the  lateral  margins  of  the 
upper  or  lower  shell;  in  the  others  they  are  usually  placed  under 
the  post-abdomen.  This  section  consists  of  five  orders:  the  Deca- 
foda,  Stomapoda,  Lasmodipoda,  Amphipoda,  and  the  Isopoda. 
The  four  first  embrace  the  genus  Cancer  of  Linnaeus,  and  the  last 
his  Oniscus. 

The  second,  the  Entomostraca,  or  "  Insects  with  shells"  of  Muller, 
is  formed  of  the  genus  Monocuxus,  Lin.  Here  the  teguments  are 
horny  and  very  thin,  while  a  shell,  resembling  a  buckler,  composed 
of  from  one  to  two  pieces,  covers  or  incloses  the  body  of  the  greater 
number.  The  eyes  are  almost  always  sessile,  and  frequently  there 
is  but  one.  The  feet,  the  number  of  which  varies,  are  mostly  fitted 
for  natation,  and  without  a  terminal  nail.  Some  of  them,  having 
an  anterior  mouth,  composed  of  a  labrum,  two  mandibles — rarely 
furnished  with  palpi,  a  tongue,  and  one,  or  at  most  two  pairs  of  jaws, 
of  which  the  external  ones  are  naked  or  are  not  covered  by  the  foot- 
jaws,  approximate  to  the  preceding  Crustacea.  In  the  other  Ento- 
mostraca, which  seem  to  approach  the  Arachnides  in  several 
particulars,  the  organs  of  manducation  are  sometimes  simply  formed 
by  the  coxae  of  the  feet,  projecting  and  arranged  like  lobes  bristling 


CRUSTACEA.  307 

with  small  spines  round  a  large  central  pharynx.  At  others  they 
either  compose  a  little  siphon  or  beak,  used  for  suction,  as  in  seve- 
ral Arachnides  and  Insects,  or  they  are  wholly  (or  nearly  so) 
invisible  externally,  either  because  the  siphon  is  internal,  or  because 
the  suction  is  produced  in  the  manner  of  a  cup. 

The  Entomostraca  are  thus  dentated  or  edentated.     The  first 
will  form  our  order  of  the  BRANCHioroDA,  and  the  second  that  of 

the  P^CILOPODA. 


FIRST  GENERAL  DIVISION. 

MALACOSTRACA. 

The  Malacostraca  naturally  divide  themselves  into  those  whose 
eyes  are  placed  on  a  movable  pedicle,  and  those  in  which  they  are 
sessile  and  fixed. 

a.  Eyes  placed  on  a  movable  and  articulated  pedicle. 


ORDER  I. 

DECAPODA(i). 

The  head,  in  the  Decapoda,  is  closely  joined  to  the  thorax,  and 
covered  with  it  by  a  shell,  entirely  continuous,  but  that  most  fre- 
quently exhibits  deep  lines  dividing  it  into  various  regions  which  in- 
dicate the  places  occupied  by  the  principal  internal  organs.  The 
mode  of  their  circulation  presents  characters  which  distinguish  thena 
from  the  other  Crustacea. 

These  animals  grow  but  slowly,  and  live  a  long  time.  It  is 
among  them  that  we  find  the  largest  and  most  useful  species,  but 
their  flesh  is  not  easily  digested.  The  body  of  some  Palinuri  attains 
the  length  of  a  metre.     Their  claws  are  efficacious  weapons,  and 


(1)  Ten-Footed. 


308  CRUSTACEA. 

have  such  power  in  large  individuals,  that  they  have  been  seen  to 
seize  a  Goat,  and  drag  it  from  the  shore:  They  usually  inhabit  wa- 
ter, but  do  not  instantly  perish  when  deprived  of  it;  some  species 
even  pass  a  part  of  their  lives  on  land.  Even  they  are  compelled  to 
fix  their  domicil,  either  in  burrows,  or  in  cool,  damp  places.  The 
Decapoda  are  voracious  and  carnivorous.  Certain  species  even  pe- 
netrate into  cemeteries,  and  devour  the  dead.  Their  limbs  are 
regenerated  with  surprising  promptitude,  but  it  is  requsite  that  the 
fracture  be  at  the  junction  of  the  articulations,  and  when  accident 
determines  it  otherwise,  they  know  how  to  apply  a  remedy.  When 
they  wish  to  change  their  skin,  they  seek  a  retired  and  solitary  spot, 
in  order  to  be  sheltered  from  their  enemies,  and  to  remain  at  rest. 
When  the  change  is  effected,  their  body  is  soft,  and  has  a  more  ex- 
quisite flavour.  A  chemical  analysis  of  the  old  shell  proves  it  to 
be  formed  of  the  carbonate  and  phosphate  of  lime,  united  in  differ- 
ent proportions  with  gelatine. 


FAMILY  I. 
BRACHYURA(l). 

Tail  shorter  than  the  trunk,  without  appendages  or  fins  at  the  ex- 
tremity, and  doubled  under  in  a  state  of  rest,  when  it  is  received  in 
a  fossula  on  the  chest.  Triangular  in  the  males,  and  only  furnish- 
ed at  base  with  four  or  two  appendages,  in  the  form  of  horns,  the 
superior  of  which  are  the  largest,  it  becomes  widened,  and  convex 
in  the  females,  presenting  beneath  four  pairs  of  double  hairy  fila- 
ments, destined  to  support  the  ova,  and  analogous  to  the  sub-caudal 
natatory  feet  of  the  Macroura,  and  others. 

This  family  may  constitute  but  one  genus,  that  of 

Cancer,  Lin. 
Or  the  Crabs.  Naturalists,  however,  have  now  divided  them  into  the  Swim- 
mers, Arcuated,  Quadrilateral,  Orbicular,  Triangular,  &c.  differing  in  shape, 
the  number  and  form  cf  the  spines  or  teeth,  the  relative  proportion  of  the 
eyes  and  their  pedicles,  &c.  Each  of  these  sections  are  again  divided  into 
numerous  genera. 

Among  the  most  noted  of  these  we  find  the  Land  Crabs  of  intertropical 


(1)  Short-tailed. 


DECAPODA.  309 

countries.  Their  habits  are  a  constant  source  of  interest  to  travellers, 
but  by  abstracting  from  their  accounts  all  improbable  and  doubtful  facts, 
their  history  will  be  as  follows.  The  greater  portion  of  their  hfe  is  passed 
on  land,  where  they  secrete  themselves  in  holes,  from  which  they  never 
issue  but  at  night.  Some  inhabit  cemeteries.  Once  in  the  year  they  col- 
lect in  immense  bands  and  pursue  a  direct  course  to  the  sea,  heedless  of  all 
obstacles;  after  depositing  tlieir  ova,  they  return  much  enfeebled.  It  is 
said  that  they  seal  up  the  mouth  of  their  burrow  during  the  time  they  are 
casting  their  shell. 


FAMILY  II. 

MACROURA(l). 

In  the  Decapoda  Macroura,  the  end  of  the  tail  is  provided  with 
appendages  which  most  frequently  form  a  fin  on  each  side;  the  tail 
itself  is  at  least  as  long  as  the  body,  extended,  exposed  and  simply 
curved  towards  its  posterior  extremity.  Its  under  surface  usually 
presents  in  both  sexes  five  pairs  of  false  feet,  each  terminated  by 
two  laminas,  or  as  many  filaments.  This  tail  is  always  composed 
of  seven  distinct  segments.  The  branchias  are  formed  of  vesicular, 
bearded  and  hairy  pyramids,  arranged  in  several  of  them,  either  in 
two  rows,  or  in  separate  fasciculi.  The  antennas  are  generally 
elongated  and  salient.  The  ocular  pedicles  are  usually  short. 
The  external  foot-jaws  are  mostly  narrow  and  elongated,  resembling 
palpi,  and  do  not  wholly  cover  the  other  parts  of  the  mouth.  The 
shell  is  narrower  and  more  elongated  than  that  of  the  Brachyura, 
and  usually  terminates  by  a  point  in  the  middle  of  the  front. 

With  De  Geer  and  Gronovius,  we  will  arrange  them  in  a  single  genus, 
that  of 

AsTACUS, 
Which  we  divide  in  the  following  manner.  Some,  by  the  proportions, 
figure,  and  uses  of  their  feet,  of  which  the  first,  or  at  least  the  second  pair, 
are  in  the  form  of  claws,  and  by  the  subcaudal  situations  of  their  ova,  evi- 
dently approach  the  preceding  Crustacea,  and  approximate  still  more 
closely  to  those  commonly  known  by  the  names  of  Crawfish,  Lobster,  and 
Shrimp. 

The  feet  of  the  others  are  very  slender,  and  are  furnished  with  an  exte- 

(1)  Long-tailed. 


310  CRUSTACEA. . 

rior  and  elongated  appendage  or  branch,  whicli  seems  to  double  their  num- 
ber. They  are  exclusively  adapted  for  natation,  and  none  of  them  termi- 
nates in  a  forceps.  The  ova  are  situated  between  them,  and  not  under  tlie 
tail. 

This  genus  is  now  divided  into  four  sections  each  consisting  of  nume- 
rous subgenera.  In  one  of  these  [Pagurus)  we  find  the  Hermit  {Cancer 
Bernhardus,  L.)  which  inhabits  univalve  shells,  stopping  the  aperture  with 
its  right  claw,  which  is  the  largest.  It  is  common  in  European  seas.  In  an- 
other (^sfac«s.  Fab.)  we  find  the  Astacus  marinus  or  Common  Lobster. 
The  fresh  water  species  are  known  by  the  name  of  Craw-Jish.  Among  these 
also  we  find  the  Shrimp  {Crangon)  and  the  Prawns  {Palxmon). 


ORDER  II. 

STOMAPODA. 

The  branchiae  of  the  Stomapoda  are  exposed  and  attached  to  the 
five  pairs  of  sub-abdonninal  appendages,  exhibited  to  us  by  that  part 
of  the  body,  called  tail,  in  theDecapoda,  and  which  here,  as  inmost 
of  the  Macroura,  are  fitted  for  natation,  or  are  fin-feet.  Their  shell 
is  divided  into  two  portions,  the  anterior  of  which  supports  the  eyes 
and  intermediate  antennas,  or  composes  the  head,  without  giving  ori- 
gin to  the  foot-jaws.  These  organs,  as  well  as  the  four  anterior  feet, 
are  frequently  approximated  to  the  mouth  on  two  lines  that  converge 
inferiorly,  and  hence  the  denomination  of  Stomapoda  affixed  to  this 
order. 

The  teguments  of  the  Stomapoda  are  thin,  and  in  several  nearly 
membranous  or  diaphanous.  The  shell  is  sometimes  formed  of  two 
shields,  of  which  the  anterior  corresponds  to  the  head  and  the  pos- 
terior to  the  thorax,  and  sometimes  of  a  single  piece,  which  how- 
ever is  free  behind,  usually  exposing  the  thoracic  segments,  bearing 
the  three  last  pairs  of  feet  and  having  an  articulation  before  that 
serves  as  a  base  to  the  eyes  and  intermediate  antennae;  these  latter 
organs  are  always  extended  and  terminated  by  two  or  three  threads. 
The  eyes  are  always  approximated.  The  formation  of  the  mouth  is 
essentially  the  same  as  in  the  Decapoda;  but  the  palpi  of  the  man- 
dibles, instead  of  being  laid  on  them,  are  always  vertical.  The 
foot-jaws  are  deprived  of  the  flagelliform  appendage  presented  to  us 
by  the  same  parts  in  the  Decapoda.     They  have  the  form  of  claws 


STOMAPODA.  311 

or  of  small  feet,  and,  at  least  in  several — the  Squillse, — their  exter- 
nal base  as  well  as  that  of  the  two  anterior  feet  properly  so  called, 
exhibits  a  vesicular  body. 

The  Stomapoda  are  all  marine  Crustacea.  Their  favourite  habi- 
tat is  in  the  intertropical  latitudes,  and  they  are  not  found  beyond 
the  temperate  zones.  Of  their  habits  we  are  totally  ignora-nt;  that 
those  which  are  furnished  with  claws  use  them  in  seizing  their  prey, 
in  the  manner  of  those  Orthoptera  called  Mantes^  we  cannot  doubt. 
Hence  their  vulgar  appellation  of  Sea-Mantis:  they  are  the  Cran- 
gones  and  Crangines  of  the  Greeks.  According  to  Uisso  they  pre- 
fer sandy  bottoms  in  deep  water.  Other  Stomapoda,  those  of  our 
second  family,  being  less  favoured  with  natatory  appendages,  and 
having  a  much  flatter  and  more  superficially  extended  body,  are  ge- 
nerally found  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  where  they  move  very 
slowly.     We  will  divide  the  Stomapoda  into  two  families. 

FAMILY  I. 

UNIPELTATA. 

In  this  family  the  shell  consists  of  a  single  shield^  of  an  elongated 
quadrilateral  form,  usually  widened  and  free  behind,  covering  the 
head,  the  antennae  and  eyes  excepted,  which  are  placed  on  a  com- 
mon anterior  articulation,  and  at  least  the  first  segments  of  the  body. 
Its  anterior  extremity  terminates  in  a  point,  or  is  preceded  by  a  small 
plate  with  a  similar  end.  All  the  foot-jaws,  the  second  of  which 
are  very  large,  and  the  four  anterior  feet  are  closely  approximated 
to  the  mouth  on  two  inferiorly  converging  lines,  and  have  the  form 
of  claws  with  a  single  finger  or  mobile  and  flexed  hook.  With  the 
exception  of  the  second  feet  all  these  organs  are  furnished  at  their 
external  origin  with  a  little  pediculated  vesicle.  The  other  six  feet, 
at  the  base  of  whose  third  segment  is  a  lateral  appendage,  are  linear, 
terminated  by  a  brush,  and  simply  natatory.  The  lateral  antennas 
have  a  scale  at  their  base,  and  the  stem  of  the  intermediaries  is  com- 
posed of  three  filaments.  The  body  is  narrow  and  elongated;  the 
ocular  pedicles  are  always  short. 

This  family  is  composed  of  but  one  genus,  that  of 

Squilla,  Fab,, 
Which  is  now  divided  into  the  True  Squillse,  Gomdadylus,  Coronis,  &c. 


312  CRUSTACEA. 

FAMILY  II. 

BIPELTATA. 

In  this  family  we  find  the  shell  divided  into  two  shields,  the  ante- 
rior of  which,  very  large  and  more  or  less  oval,  forms  the  head,  and 
the  posterior,  corresponding  to  the  thorax,  transverse  and  angular 
in  its  circumference,  supports  the  foot-jaws  and  feet.  These  latter, 
with  the  exception  at  most  of  the  two  posterior  and  two  last  foot-jaws, 
are  slender  and  filiform,  usually  very  long  and  accompanied  by  a 
lateral  ciliated  appendage.  The  other  four  foot-jaws  are  very  small 
and  conical.  The  base  of  the  lateral  antennsE!  exhibits  no  scale; 
the  intermediaries  are  terminated  by  two  threads.  The  ocular  pe- 
dicles are  long.  The  body  is  much  flattened,  membranous,  and 
diaphanous;  the  abdomen  small  and  its  posterior  fin  without  spines. 
It  comprises  but  a  single  genus,  the 

PiiYLLosoMA,  Leach, 
Of  which  all  the  species  inhabit  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  Oriental  seas. 

MALACOSTRACA. 

h.  Eyes  sessile  and  immovable. 

The  Branchiopoda  are  the  only  Crustacea  of  which  we  shall 
henceforward  have  occasion  to  speak,  that  exhibit  eyes  placed  on 
pedicles.  But  independently  of  the  fact  that  these  pedicles  are 
neither  articulated  nor  lodged  in  special  cavities,  the  Branchiopoda 
have  no  shell  and  are  otherwise  removed  from  the  preceding  Crus- 
tacea by  various  characters.  All  the  Malacostraca  of  this  division 
are  also  deprived  of  a  shell;  their  body,  from  the  head  downwards, 
is  composed  of  a  suite  of  articulations  of  which  each  of  the  first 
seven  is  furnished  with  a  pair  of  feet,  the  following  and  last  ones, 
seven  at  most,  forming  a  sort  of  tail  terminated  by  fins  or  styliform 
appendages.  The  head  presents  four  antennae,  the  two  intermediate 
superior,  two  eyes,  and  a  mouth  composed  of  two  mandibles,  a 
tongue,  two  paii's  of  jaws,  and  a  sort  of  lip  formed  by  two  foot-jaws 
that  correspond  to  the  two  superior  ones  of  the  Decapoda;  here,  as 
in  the  Stomapoda,  the  flagrum  no  longer  exists.     The  four  last 


STOMAPODA.  313 

foot-jaws  are  transformed  into  feet,  sometimes  simple  and  at  others 
constituting  a  claw,  but  almost  always  with  a  single  toe  or  hook. 

All  these  Crustacea  are  small,  and  mostly  inhabit  the  sea-coast 
or  fresh  water.  Some  are  terrestrial,  and  others  are  known  which 
are  parasitical. 


ORDER  III. 
AMPHIPODA. 

The  Amphipoda  are  the  only  Malacosfraca  with  sessile  and  im- 
movable eyes,  whose  mandibles,  hke  those  of  the  preceding  Crus- 
tacea, are  furnished  with  a  palpus,  and  the  only  ones  whose  sub- 
caudal  appendages,  always  very  apparent,  by  their  narrow  and 
elongated  form,  their  articulations,  bifurcations,  and  other  incisures, 
as  well  as  by  the  hairs  or  cilia  with  which  they  are  provided,  resem- 
ble false  or  natatory  feet.  In  the  Malacostraca  of  the  following 
orders,  these  appendages  have  the  form  of  laminse  or  scales;  here 
these  hairs  and  cilia  appear  to  constitute  the  branchiae.  Many  of 
them,  like  the  Stomapoda  and  the  Losmodipoda,  have  vesicular  bursie 
either  between  their  feet  or  at  their  external  base,  the  use  of  which 
is  unknown. 

The  first  pair  of  feet,  or  that  which  corresponds  to  the  second 
foot-jaws,  is  always  annexed  to  a  particular  segment,  the  first  after 
the  head.  The  antennae,  which,  with  a  single  exception — thePhro- 
nimae, — are  four  in  number,  project,  gradually  taper  into  a  point, 
and  consist,  as  in  the  preceding  Crustacea,  of  a  peduncle  and  a 
single  stem,  or  one  furnished  at  most  with  a  little  lateral  branch,  and 
usually  composed  of  several  joints.  The  body  is  generally  com- 
pressed and  curved  beneath  posteriorly.  The  terminal  appendages 
of  the  tail  are  most  frequently  styliform  and  articulated.  Most  of 
them  swim  and  leap  with  facility  and  always  laterally.  Some  in- 
habit springs  and  rivulets;  most  of  them  however  live  in  salt  water. 
Their  colour  is  uniform,  verging  on  reddish  or  greenish. 

They  may  all  be  comprised  in  a  single  genus,  that  of 
2  P 


314  CRUSTACEA. 

Gammakus,  Fab., 
Which  is  now  divided  into  various  subgenera,  such  as  Phronima,  Hyptria, 
&c.    Among  the  most  interesting  of  these  is  the 

CoKOPHitrjyi,  Lat. 
The  C.  longicornis,  called  Fernys,  on  the  coast  of  Rochelle,  lives  in  holes, 
which  it  forms  in  the  mud,  that  is  covered  with  hurdles,  called  bouchots  by 
the  inhabitants.  The  animal  does  not  make  its  appearance  till  the  begin- 
ning of  May.  It  wages  everlasting  war  against  the  Nereides,  Amphinomse, 
Arenicolse,  and  other  marine  Annulata,  which  inhabit  the  same  locality.  A 
curious  spectacle  is  presented  by  these  Crustacea  when  the  tide  is  coming 
in;  myriads  of  them  may  then  be  seen  moving  in  every  direction,  beating 
the  mud  with  their  great  arms,  and  diluting  it  in  order  to  discover  their  prey: 
is  it  one  of  the  above  mentioned  Annulata  they  have  discovered,  which 
is  ten  or  twenty  times  larger  than  themselves?  they  unite  to  attack  and  de- 
vour it.  The  carnage  never  ceases  until  the  mud  has  been  thoroughly 
turned  up  and  its  inequalities  levelled.  They  do  not  even  spare  MoUusca, 
Fishes,  or  dead  bodies  on  the  shore.  They  mount  upon  the  hurdles  which 
contain  Muscles,  and  fishermen  assert  that  they  wUl  cut  the  threads  that 
keep  them  there,  in  order  to  precipitate  them  into  the  mud,  where  they  may 
devour  them  at  their  leisure. 


ORDER  IV, 

L^MODIPODA.(l) 

The  Laemodipoda  are  the  only  Malacostraca  with  sessile  eyes,  in 
which  the  posterior  extremity  of  the  body  exhibits  no  distinct  bran- 
chiae, and  which  are  almost  deprived  of  a  tail,  the  two  last  feet  be- 
ing inserted  in  that  extremity,  or  the  segment  which  connects  them 
with  it  being  merely  followed  by  one  or  two  very  small  joints.  They 
are  also  the  only  ones  in  which  the  two  anterior  feet,  that  corres- 
pond to  the  second  foot-jaws,  form  part  of  the  head. 

They  all  have  four  setaceous  antennse  supported  by  a  triarticu- 
lated  peduncle,  mandibles  without  palpi,  a  vesicular  body  at  the 
base  of  at  least  the  four  pairs  of  feet,  beginning  at  the  second  or 
third  pair,  those  of  the  head  included.  The  body,  usually  filiform 
or  linear,  is  composed  of  eight  or  nine  segments,  including  the  head 
and  some  small  appendages  in  the  form  of  tubercles  at  its  posterior 


(1)  Throat-footed. 


LvEMODIPODA.  315 

and  inferior  extremity.  The  feet  are  terminated  by  a  stout  hook. 
The  four  anterior,  the  second  of  which  are  the  largest,  are  always 
terminated  by  a  monodactyle  forceps  or  a  claw.  In  several,  the 
four  following  ones  are  shortened,  less  articulated,  without  the  ter- 
minal hook,  or  are  rudiraental,  and  nowise  adapted  for  the  ordinary 
uses  of  similar  parts. 

The  females  carry  their  ova  under  the  second  and  third  segments 
of  the  body,  in  a  pouch  formed  of  approximated  scales.  They  are 
all  marine  Crustacea. 

We  may  unite  them  in  a  single  genus  which,  by  the  law  of  priority, 
should  be  called 

Cyamus,  Lat. 
Now  divided  into  Leptomera,  Naupredia,  Caprella,  and  Cyamus  proper. 


ORDER  V. 

ISOPODA.(l) 

The  Isopoda  approach  the  Lsemodipoda  by  the  absence  of  the 
palpi  of  the  mandibles,  but  are  removed  from  them  in  several  other 
respects.  The  two  anterior  feet  are  not  attached  to  the  head,  and 
belong,  as  well  as  the  following  ones,  to  a  particular  segment. 
They  are  always  fourteen  in  number,  unguiculated,  and  without  any 
vesicular  appendage  at  their  base.  The  under  part  of  the  tail  is 
furnished  with  very  apparent  appendages  resembling  leaflets  or  vesi- 
cular bursae,  the  two  first  or  external  of  which,  either  partially  or 
wholly,  usually  cover  the  others.  The  body  is  generally  flattened, 
or  is  wider  than  it  is  thick.  The  mouth  consists  of  the  same  pieces 
as  in  the  preceding  Crustacea;  but  here,  those  which  correspond 
to  the  two  superior  foot-jaws  of  the  Decapoda,  exhibit  an  appear- 
ance of  a  lower  lip  terminated  by  two  palpi,  still  more  than  in  the 
latter.  The  two  mediate  antennae  are  almost  obliterated  in  the  last 
Crustacea  of  this  order,  which  are  all  terrestrial,  and  also  differ  from 
the  others  in  their  respiratory  apparatus.     Most  of  them  are  aqua- 


(1)  Equal-footed. 


316  CRUSTACEA. 

tic.  Those  which  are  terrestrial,  Hke  all  other  Crustacea  which 
live  out  of  water,  still  require  a  certain  degree  of  atmospheric  hu- 
midity to  enable  them  to  breathe,  and  to  preserve  their  branchiae  in 
a  proper  state  for  the  exercise  of  that  function. 

This  order  according  to  the  system  of  Linnasus  embraces  the 
genus 

Oniscus,  Lin., 
Which  is  now  divided  into  six  sections.     Those  of  the  first  are  parasitical. 
The  subgenera  are  numerous.     Some  are  aquatic  and  others  terrestrial. 
Among  the  latter  we  have  the 

Oxiscus,  Lin. 
The  true  Onisci  have  eight  joints  in  their  lateral  antennse,  but  their  base  is 
covered,  and  the  two  external  appendages  of  the  extremity  of  the  tail  are 
much  larger  than  the  others.  These  animals  are  vulgarly  called  Clous-d- 
porte,  and  by  syncope  Cloporte,  PvrcekU,  de  Saint- Antoine,  Wood  lice,  &c. 
They  inhabit  retired  and  obscure  places,  cellars,  fissui-es  in  walls,  old  build- 
ings, under  stones,  &c.,  &c.  They  feed  on  decaying  vegetable  and  animal 
matters,  and  seldom  issue  from  their  retreat,  except  in  rainy  weather. 
They  move  but  slowly,  unless  they  are  alarmed.  The  ova  are  inclosed  in  a 
pectoral  pouch.  The  young,  at  birth,  have  one  thoracic  segment  less  than 
the  adult,  and  consequently  have  but  twelve  feet. 


SECOND  GENERAL  DIVISION. 

ENTOMOSTRACA. 

Under  this  denomination,  which  is  taken  from  the  Greek,  and  sig- 
nifies Insects  with  shells,  Othon  Frederick  Muller  comprises  the 
genus  Monoculus  of  Linnasus,  to  which  we  must  add  some  of  his 
Lerneae, 

Tliese  animals,  mostly  microscopic,  are  all  aquatic,  and  mostly  in- 
habit fresh  water.  Their  feet,  the  number  of  whicli  varies,  and  that 
sometimes  extends  to  beyond  a  hundred,  are  usually  fitted  for  nata- 
tion only,  being  sometimes  ramified  or  divided,  and  sometimes  fur- 
nished with  pinnulas  or  formed  of  lamellae.  Their  brain  is  formed 
of  one  or  two  globules.  The  heart  has  always  the  figure  of  a  long 
vessel..     The  branchiae,  composed  of  hairs  or  setae,  singly  or  united. 


ENTOMOSTRACA.  317 

in  the  form  of  barbs,  combs  or  tufts,  constitute  a  part  of  those  feet 
or  of  a  certain  number  of  them,  and  sometimes  of  the  upper  mandi- 
bles. Hence  the  origin  of  our  term  Branchiopoda,  affixed  to  these 
animals,  of  which  at  first  we  formed  but  a  single  order.  Nearly  all 
of  them  are  provided  with  a  shell  composed  of  one  or  two  pieces, 
very  thin,  and  most  generally  almost  membranous  and  nearly  dia- 
phanous, or  at  least  with  a  large  anterior  thoracic  segment,  fre- 
quently confounded  with  the  head,  which  appears  to  replace  the 
shell.  The  teguments  are  usually  rather  horny  than  calcareous, 
thereby  approximating  thiese  animals  to  thelnsectaand  Arachnides. 


ORDER  I. 

BRANCHIOPODA(l). 

A  mouth  composed  of  alabrum,  two  mandibles,  aligula,  and  one 
or  two  pairs  of  jaws,  and  branchias,  the  first  of  which,  when  there 
are  several,  are  always  anterior,  characterize  this  order  or  the  sixth 
of  the  class. 

These  Crustacea  are  always  errant  and  are  generally  protected 
by  a  shell  resembling  that  of  a  bivalve,  and  furnished  with  four  or 
two  antennae.  Their  feet,  with  a  few  exceptions,  are  wholly  nata- 
tory. Their  number  varies,  being  but  six  in  some,  while  in  others 
it  amounts  to  twenty,  forty-two,  or  more  than  a  hundred.  Many  of 
them  have  but  one  eye. 

Most  of  these  animals,  as  we  have  already  stated,  being  nearly 
microscopical,  it  is  evident  that  the  application  of  one  of  the  char- 
acters we  have  employed — that  of  the  presence  or  absence  of  the 
palpi  of  the  mandibles — with  respect  to  them,  presents  almost  insu- 
perable difliculties.  The  form  and  number  of  the  feet,  that  of  the 
eyes,  the  shell,  the  antennae,  furnish  us  with  more  visible  marks, 
and  such  as  are  within  the  observation  of  every  one. 

This  order  in  the  systems  of  De  Geer,  Fabricius  and  Linnseus,  a 
single  species  excepted — M.  polyphemuSf — contained  but  the  single 
genus 


(1)  Gill-footed 


318  CRUSTACEA. 

MoNOcuLus,  Lin. 
Which  is  now  divided  into  two  g^eat  sections  and  various  subgenera. 


ORDER  II. 
P^CILOPODA(l). 

The  Paecilopoda  are  distinguished  from  the  Branchiopoda  by  the 
diversity  in  the  form  of  their  feet,  among  the  anterior  of  which  an 
indeterminate  number  are  ambulatory,  or  fitted  for  prehension; 
while  the  others,  lamelliform  or  pinnate,  are  branchial  and  natatory. 
It  is  principally,  however,  by  the  absence  of  the  usual  mandibles  and 
jaws  that  they  are  removed  from  all  other  Crustacea.  Sometimes 
these  parts  are  replaced  by  the  spinous  haunches  of  the  first  six  pairs 
of  feet;  and  sometimes  the  organs  of  manducation  consist  either  of 
an  external  siphon  in  the  form  of  an  inarticulated  rostrum,  or  of 
some  other  apparatus  fitted  for  suction,  but  concealed  or  slightly 
apparent. 

Their  body  is  almost  always,  either  wholly,  or  for  the  greater  por- 
tion, invested  with  a  shell  in  the  form  of  a  shield,  consisting  of  a 
single  plate  in  most  of  them,  and  of  two  in  others,  which  always 
presents  two  eyes  when  those  organs  are  distinct.  Two  of  their 
antennas — Chelicerse^  Lat. — form  a  forceps  in  several,  and  fulfil  its 
functions.  Most  of  them  have  twelve  feet,  and  nearly  all  the  re- 
mainder have  either  ten  or  twesty-two.  Their  usual  habitat  is  on 
aquatic  animals,  and  most  commonly  on  Fishes. 

We  divide  this  order  into  two  families. 

FAMILY  I. 

XYPHOSURA. 

This  family  is  distinguished  from  the  second  by  several  characters: 
there  is  no  siphon;  the  haunches  of  the  first  six  pair  of  feet  are 
covered  with  small  spines  and  perform  the  office  of  jaws;  there  are 


(1)  Various-footed. 


P^CILOPODA.  319 

twenty-two  feet;  the  first  ten,  with  the  exception  of  the  two  anterior 
ones  in  the  males,  are  terminated  by  a  dydactyle  forceps,  and  in- 
serted, as  well  as  the  two  that  follow,  under  a  large  semi-lunar 
shield.     They  are  wandering  animals,  and  form  the  genus 

LiMULUs,  Fab. 
The  species  are  known  in  commerce  by  the  name  of  the  Molucca  Crab. 

These  animals  are  sometimes  found  two  feet  in  length,  they  inhabit  the 
seas  of  hot  climates,  and  most  generally  frequent  their  shores.  They  appear 
to  me  to  be  proper  to  the  East  Indies  and  the  coast  of  America.  The  spe- 
cies found  in  France — L.  cy clops — is  commonly  called  the  Casserole,  (I) 
from  its  having  some  resemblance  to  the  form  of  that  utensil,  and  because 
when  the  feet  are  removed  its  shell  is  used  to  hold  water.  Savages  employ 
the  stylet  of  the  tail  to  point  their  arrows,  which,  thus  armed,  are  much 
dreaded.  Their  eggs  are  eaten  in  China.  "When  these  animals  walk,  their 
feet  are  not  seen.  Fossil  specimens  are  found  in  certain  strata  of  a  mode- 
rate antiquity. 

FAMILY  II. 

SIPHONOSTOMA. 

The  Siphonostomae  have  no  kind  of  jaws  whatever.  A  sucker  or 
siphon,  sometimes  external  and  in  the  form  of  an  acute  inarticulated 
rostrum,  and  at  others  concealed  or  but  slightly  visible,  fulfils  the 
functions  of  a  mouth.  There  are  never  more  than  fourteen  feet. 
The  shell  is  very  thin  and  composed  of  a  single  piece.  They  are 
all  parasitical. 

This  family  is  now  divided  into  two  tribes,  the  Calagides,  com- 
prising Argula  and  Caligus  (or  the  Fish-Louse),  and  the  Lernei- 
FOKMES,  which  consists  of  two  genera  also.  They  are  DicJielestium 
and 

NiCOTHOE. 
These  animals  terminate  the  Crustacea,  and  are  distinguished  from  all  othei's 
of  that  class  by  their  heteroclitical  form.    To  the  naked  eye  they  seem 
nothing  more  than  two  lobes  united  in  the  form  of  a  horse-shoe,  which  en- 
closes two  others.      By  the  aid  of  glasses,  however,  we  discover  that 


(1)  The  King-crab  of  our  fishermen,  or  the  Horse-shoe.    Very  commoui 
on  the  coast  of  New  Jersey. 


320  CRUSTACEA. 

the  two  large  lobes  are  formed  by  the  g-reat  expansion  of  tlie  sides  of  the 
thorax,  which  resembles  wings,  are  almost  oval,  and  thrown  behind;  that 
the  two  others  are  clusters  of  eggs,  &c. 

NicotJioe  asfaci,  Aud.  and  Edw.  The  only  species  known;  it  is  about 
half  a  line  long  and  three  lines  broad,  the  thoracic  enlargement  included.  It 
is  rose-coloured,  paler  on  the  oviferous  sacs;  the  expansions  yellowish.  It 
adlieres  closely  to  the  branchise  of  the  Lobster,  and  penetrates  deeply  be- 
tween the  filaments  of  those  organs. 


TRILOBITES. 

According  to  Brongniart  and  various  other  naturalists,  it  is  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  Limuli  and  other  Entomostraca  with  numerous  feet, 
that  we  should  place  these  singular  fossil  animals,  originally  con- 
founded under  the  common  name  of  Entomolithus  paradoxus^  and 
now  designated  by  that  of  Trilobites.  By  this  hypothesis  we  have 
to  admit  as  a  positive  or  at  least  highly  probable,  fact,  the  existence 
of  locomotive  organs,  although,  notwithstanding  the  most  careful 
investigation,  no  vestige  of  them  has  been  discovered.  Presuming, 
on  the  contrary,  that  these  animals  were  deprived  of  them,  1  thought 
that  their  natural  position  was  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Chitones, 
or  rather  that  they  constituted  the  original  stock  of  the  Articulata, 
being  connected  on  the  one  hand  with  these  latter  Mollusca,  and 
on  the  other,  with  those  first  mentioned,  and  even  with  the  Glomeres, 
to  which  some  Trilobites,  such  as  the  Calymenes,  appear  to  ap- 
proximate, as  well  as  to  the  Chitones,  inasmuch  as  by  contracting 
they  could  also  become  spherical.  Be  this  as  it  may,  these  animals 
appear  to  have  been  annihilated  by  some  ancient  revolution  of  our 
planet. 

The  Trilobites,  one  heteromorphous  genus  excepted,  that  of  Ag- 
nostus,  have,  like  the  Limuli,  a  large  anterior  segment  in  the  form 
of  an  almost  semicircular  or  lunated  shield,  followed  by  from  about 
twelve  to  twenty-two  segments,  all  transversal  except  the  last,  and 
divided  by  two  longitudinal  sulci  into  three  ranges  of  parts  or  lobes, 
whence  their  name  of  Trilobites.  Some  naturahsts  call  them 
Entomostracites . 

They  are  divided  by  Mr  Brongniart  into  the  following  genera; 
Agnostus,  Calymene,  Asaphus^  Ogygia  and  Paradoxides. 


ARACHNIDES.  321 

CLASS  II. 
ARACHNIDES. 

The  Arachnides,  which  compose  the  second  class  of  articulated 
animals  provided  with  movable  feet,  are,  as  well  as  the  Crustacea, 
deprived  of  wings,  are  not  subject  (o  changes  of  form,  or  do  not  ex- 
perience any  metamorphosis,  simply  casting  their  skin;  but  they 
differ  from  them  as  well  as  from  Insects  in  several  particulars.  Like 
the  latter,  the  surface  of  their  body  presents  apertures  or  transverse 
fissures  called  stigmata^  for  the  introduction  of  air,  but  they  are  few 
in  number — eight  at  most,  and  usually  but  two — and  confined  to 
the  inferior  portion  of  the  abdomen.  Respiration  is  also  effected 
either  by  means  of  air-branchiae,  fulfilling  the  functions  of  lungs  that 
are  contained  in  sacs,  of  which  these  stigmata  are  the  apertures,  or  by 
radiated  tracheae.  The  visual  organs  merely  consist  of  ocelli,  or 
simple  eyes,  which,  when  numerous,  are  variously  grouped.  The 
head,  usually  confounded  with  the  thorax,  in  place  of  the  antennae, 
has  two  articulated  pieces  in  the  form  of  small  didactyle  or  mono- 
dactyle  chelae,  improperly  compared  to  the  mandibles  of  Insects, 
and  so  denominated,  moving  in  a  contrary  direction  to  the  former,  or 
from  above  downwards,  still  however  co-operating'  in  the  business 
of  manducation,  and  replaced  in  the  Arachnides,  where  the  mouth 
has  the  form  of  a  siphon  or  sucker,  by  two  pointed  blades  which  act 
as  lancets.  A  kind  of  lip,  or  rather  ligula,  produced  by  a  pectoral 
prolongation;  two  jaws  formed  by  the  radical  joint  of  the  first  seg- 
ment of  two  small  legs  or  palpi,  or  by  an  appendage  or  lobe  of  that 
same  joint;  a  part  concealed  under  the  mandibles,  composed  of  a 
projection  in  the  form  of  a  rostrum,  produced  by  the  union  of  a 
very  small  clypeus  terminated  by  an  extremely  small  trianL'ular  la- 
brum,  and  of  an  inferior  longitudinal  carina,  u^aally  very  liairy,  are 
the  parts  which,  with  the  pieces  termed  mandibles,  constitute  with 
some  modifications  the  mouth  of  most  of  the  Arachnides.  The  legs, 
like  those  of  Insects,  are  commonly  terminated  by  two  hooks,  and 
even  sometimes  by  one  more,  and  are  all  annexed  to  the  thorax,  or 
2  Q 


322  ARACHNIDES. 

rather  cephalo-thorax,  which,  except  in  a  small  number,  is  only 
formed  of  a  single  segment,  and  is  frequently  intimately  united  to 
the  abdomen.  This  latter  part  of  the  body  is  soft,  or  but  slightly 
defended,  in  most  of  them. 

Most  of  the  Arachnides  feed  on  Insects  which  they  either  seize 
alive,  or  to  which  they  adiiere,  abstracting  their  fluids  by  suction. 
Others  are  parasitical,  and  live  on  vertebrated  animals.  Some  of 
them  however  are  only  found  in  flour,  on  cheese,  and  even  on  vari- 
ous vegetables.  Those  which  live  on  other  animals  frequently 
multiply  there  to  a  great  extent.  Two  of  the  legs,  in  some  species, 
are  only  developed  by  a  change  of  the  tegument. 


Division  of  the  Arachnides  into  Orders. 

Some  have  pulmonary  sacs,  a  heart  with  very  distinct  vessels, 
and  six  or  eight  simple  eyes.  They  compose  our  first  order,  or 
that  of  the  Pulmoxaeoi;. 

The  others  respire  by  tracheas,  and  have  no  organs  of  circulation, 
or  if  they  have,  the  circulation  is  not  complete.  The  tracheae  are 
divided  near  their  origin  into  various  branches,  and  do  not,  as  in 
Insects,  form  two  trunks  which  run  parallel  to  each  other  through- 
out the  whole  length  of  the  body  and  receive  air  from  various  points 
by  means  of  numerous  stigmata.  Here,  but  two,  at  most,  are  dis- 
tinctly visible,  and  they  are  situated  near  the  base  of  the  abdomen. 
The  number  of  ocelli  is  at  most  but  four.  They  constitute  our  se- 
cond and  last  order,  or  that  of  the  Tkacheaki^. 


ORDER  I. 

PULMONARIiE. 

We  here  find  a  well  marked  circulating  system  and  pulmonary  sacs, 
always  placed  under  the  abdomen,  announced  externally  by  trans- 
verse openings  or  fissures  (stigmata),  of  which  there  are  sometimes 
eight,  four  on  each  side,  and  at  others  four,  or  even  two.  The 
number  of  ocelli  is  from  six  to  eight,  while  in  the  following  order  it 
never  exceeds  four,  and  is  most  generally  but  two;  sometimes  they 


PULMONARIiE.  323 

are  hardly  perceptible,  or  even  annihilated.  The  organ  of  respira- 
tion is  formed  of  little  laminje.  The  heart  is  a  large  vessel  which 
extends  along  the  back,  and  gives  off  branches  on  each  side  and 
anteriorly.  There  are  always  eight  legs.  The  head  is  always  con- 
founded with  the  thorax,  and  presents  at  its  anterior  superior  ex- 
tremity two  mandibles — so  called  by  authors,  the  chelicerse  of  La- 
treille,  terminated  by  two  fingers,  one  of  which  is  movable,  or  by 
a  single  one  resembling  a  hook  or  claw  that  is  always  movable. 
The  mouth  is  composed  of  a  labrum,  of  two  palpi,  sometimes  re- 
sembling arms  or  claws,  of  the  two  or  four  jaws,  formed,  when  there 
are  but  two,  by  the  radical  joint  of  these  palpi,  and  moreover,  where 
there  are  four,  by  the  same  joint  of  the  first  pair  of  feet,  and  of  a 
ligula  consisting  of  one  or  two  pieces. 

FAMILY  I. 

ARANEIDES. 

This  family  is  composed  of  the  genus  Aranea,  Lin.,  or  the  Spi- 
ders. They  have  palpi  resembling  little  feet,  without  a  forceps  at 
the  end,  terminated  at  most  by  a  little  hook.  Their  frontal  cheli- 
ceras  (the  mandibles  of  authors)  are  terminated  by  a  movable  hook, 
flexed  inferiorly,  underneath  which,  and  near  its  extremity,  which  is 
always  pointed,  is  a  little  opening,  that  allows  a  passage  to  a  veno- 
mous fluid  contained  in  a  gland  of  the  preceding  joint.  There  are 
never  more  than  two  jaws.  The  thorax  usually  marked  with  a  de- 
pression in  the  form  of  a  V,  indicating  the  space  occupied  by  the 
head,  consists  of  a  single  segment,  posteriorly  to  which,  by  means 
of  a  short  pedicle,  is  suspended  a  movable  and  usually  soft  abdomen; 
it  is  always  furnished  with  from  four  to  six  closely  approximated 
cylindrical  or  conical,  articulated  mamillae  with  fleshy  extremities, 
which  are  perforated  with  numberless  small  orifices  for  the  passage  of 
silky  filaments  of  extreme  tenuity  proceeding  from  internal  reservoirs. 
Their  legs,  identical  as  to  form,  but  of  different  sizes,  are  composed 
of  seven  joints,  of  which  the  two  first  form  the  hip,  the  third  the 
thigh,  the  fourth  and  fifth  the  tibia,  and  the  two  others  the  tarsus: 
the  last  is  terminated  by  two  hooks  usually  pectinated,  and  in  seve- 
ral by  one  more,  which  is  smaller  and  notdentated.  The  intestinal 
canal  is  straight,  consisting  of  a  first  stomach,  composed  of  several 


324  ARACHNIDES. 

sacs,  and  then  of  a  second  stomach  or  dilatation  surrounded  with 
silk. 

The  nervous  system  is  composed  of  a  double  cord  occupying  the 
median  line  of  the  body,  and  of  ganglions  which  distribute  nerves  to 
the  various  organs. 

With  respect  to  the  simple  eyes,  or  ocelli,  Mr  Dafour  remarks 
that  they  shine  in  darkness  like  those  of  Cats,  and  that  the  Araneides 
most  probably  enjoy  the  faculty  both  of  nocturnal  and  diurnal 
vision. 

The  abdomen  becomes  so  putrid  and  decomposed  after  death, 
that  its  colours  and  even  its  form  are  soon  destroyed.  M.  Dufour, 
by  means  of  a  rapid  desiccation,  the  mode  of  vyhich  he  points  out, 
has  succeeded  in  remedying  this  evil  to  a  great  degree. 

The  silk,  according  to  Reaumur,  is  first  elaborated  in  two  little 
reservoirs,  shaped  like  tears  of  glass,  placed  obliquely,  one  on  each 
side,  at  the  base  of  six  other  reservoirs,  resembling  intestines,  situated 
close  to  each  other,  flexed  six  or  seven  times,  proceeding  from  a 
little  beneath  the  origin  of  the  abdomen,  and  terminating  in  the  pa- 
pillce  by  a  very  slender  thread.  It  is  in  these  last  mentioned  vessels 
that  the  silk  acquires  a  greater  degree  of  firmness  and  other  proper- 
ties peculiar  to  it;  they  communicate  with  the  preceding  ones  by 
branches,  forming  a  number  of  geniculate  turns,  and  then  various 
pieces  of  net-work.  The  newly  spun  filaments,  when  first  drawn 
from  the  mamillas,  are  adhesive,  and  a  certain  degree  of  desiccation 
or  evaporation  is  required  to  fit  them  for  their  destined  purposes. 
When  the  temperature  is  propitious,  however,  a  single  instant  is 
sufllicient,  as  the  animal  employs  them  the  moment  they  escape  from 
the  apparatus.  Those  white  and  silky  flocculi  that  may  be  observed 
floating  about  in  spring  and  autumn  in  foggy  weather,  are  certainly 
produced — as  we  satisfactorily  ascertained  by  tracing  them  to  their 
point  of  origin — by  various  young  Araneides;  they  are  mostly  the 
larger  threads  which  are  intended  to  afford  points  of  attachment  to 
the  radii  of  the  web,  or  those  that  compose  the  chain,  and  which, 
becoming  more  ponderous  by  the  access  of  moisture,  sink,  approach 
one  another,  and  finally  form  little  pellets:  we  frequently  observe 
them  collected  near  the  web  commenced  by  the  Spider,  and  in 
which  it  resides. 

It  is  also  very  probable  that  many  of  the  young  animals,  not  hav- 
ing as  yet  a  sufficient  supply  of  silk,  limit  their  structure  to  throwing 


PULMONARliE.  325 

out  simple  threads.  It  is,  I  think,  to  the  young  Lycosas  that  we 
must  attribute  those  which  intersect  the  furrows  of  ploughed  grounds, 
whose  numbers  are  rendered  so  apparent  by  the  reflection  of  light 
after  sunrise.  By  chemical  analysis,  these  threads  exhibit  the  same 
characters  as  the  web  of  the  spider: — they  are  not  then  formed  in 
the  atmosphere,  as,  for  want  of  proper  observation,  ex  visu,  that  ce- 
lebrated naturalist,  M.  Lamarck,  has  conjectured.  Gloves  and 
stockings  have  been  made  with  this  silk;  but  it  was  found  impossible 
to  apply  the  process  on  a  large  scale,  and  as  it  is  subject  to  many 
difficulties,  is  rather  a  matter  of  curiosity  than  utility.  This  sub- 
stance, however,  is  of  much  greater  importance  to  the  little  animal 
in  question.  With  it,  the  sedentary  species,  or  those  which  do  not 
roam  abroad  in  search  of  their  prey,  weave  webs  of  a  more  or  less 
compact  tissue,  whose  form  and  position  vary  according  to  the  pe- 
culiar habits  of  each  of  them,  and  that  are  so  many  snares  or  traps, 
where  the  insects  on  which  they  feed  become  entangled,  or  are 
taken.  No  sooner  is  one  of  them  arrested  there  by  the  hooks  of 
its  tarsi,  than  the  Spider,  some  times  placed  in  the  centre  of  his  net, 
or  at  the  bottom  of  his  web,  or  at  others  lying  in  ambush  in  a  pecu- 
liar domicil  situated  near  and  in  one  of  the  angles,  rushes  towards 
his  victim  and  endeavours  to  pierce  him  with  his  murderous  dart, 
distilling  into  the  wound  a  prompt  and  mortal  poison;  should  the 
former  resist  too  vigorously,  or  should  it  be  dangerous  to  the  latter 
to  approach  if,  he  retreats,  waiting  until  it  has  either  exhausted  its 
powers  by  struggling,  or  become  more  entangled  in  the  net;  but 
should  there  be  no  cause  of  fear,  he  hastens  to  bind  it  by  involving 
the  body  in  his  silken  threads,  with  which  it  is  sometimes  completely 
enveloped. 

Lister  says  that  Spiders  dart  their  threads  in  the  same  way  that 
the  Porcupine  darts  his  quills,  with  this  difference,  however,  that  in 
the  latter,  according  to  the  popular  belief,  the  spines  are  detached 
from  the  body,  whereas  in  the  former,  these  threads,  though  pro- 
pelled to  a  considerable  distance,  always  remain  connected  with  it. 
The  possibility  of  this  has  been  denied.  Be  it  as  it  may,  we  have 
seen  threads  issuing  from  the  mamillae  of  several  Thoraisi  form 
straight  lines,  and  when  the  animals  moved  circularly,  producing 
movable  radii.  A  second  use  to  which  this  silk  is  applied  by  all 
female  Araneides,  is  in  the  construction  of  the  sacs  destined  to  con- 
tain their  eggs.     The  texture  and  form  of  these  sacs  are  variously 


326  ARACHNIDES. 

modified,  according  to  the  habits  of  the  race.  They  are  usually 
spheroidal;  some  of  them  resemble  a  cap  or  tymbal,  others  are 
placed  on  a  pedicle,  and  some  are  claviform.  They  are  sometimes 
partially  enveloped  with  foreign  bodies,  such  as  earth,  leaves,  &c.; 
a  finer  material,  or  sort  of  tow  or  down,  frequently  surrounds  the 
eggs  in  their  interior,  where  they  are  free  or  agglutinated  and  more 
or  less  numerous. 

I  have  ascertained  that  a  single  wound  from  a  moderate  sized 
Spider  will  kill  our  common  Fly  in  a  kw  minutes.  It  is  also  cer- 
tain that  the  bite  of  those  large  ones  of  South  America,  which  are 
there  called  Crab-Spiders,  and  are  placed  by  us  in  the  genus  My- 
gale,  kills  the  smaller  vertebrated  animals,  such  as  Humming-Birds, 
Pigeons,  &c.,  and  produces  a  violent  fever  in  Man;  the  sting  of 
some  species  in  the  south  of  France  has  even  occasionally  proved 
fatal.  We  may  therefore,  without  believing  all  the  fabulous  stories 
of  Baglivi  and  others  respecting  the  bite  of  the  Tarantula,  mistrust 
Spiders,  and  particularly  the  larger  ones. 

Various  insects  of  the  genus  Sphex,  Lin,,  (Wasps)  seize  upon 
them,  pierce  them  w^ith  their  sting,  and  transport  them  into  holes 
where  they  have  deposited  their  eggs,  as  a  source  of  food  for  their 
young.  Most  of  them  perish  in  winter,  but  there  are  some  which 
live  several  years — such  are  the  Mygales,  the  Lycosae,  and  probably 
several  others. 

M.  Leon  Dufour,  who  has  published  many  excellent  memoirs  on 
the  anatomy  of  Insects,  who  has  especially  studied  those  of  Valencia, 
among  which  he  has  detected  several  new  species,  and  to  whose 
labours  the  science  of  Botany  is  not  less  indebted,  has  paid  particu- 
lar attention  to  the  respiratory  organs  of  spiders,  and  it  is  from  him 
that  we  have  taken  our  divisions,  which  consist  of  those  that  have 
four  pulmonary  sacs — with  as  many  external  stigmata,  two  on  each 
side,  and  closely  approximated — and  of  such  as  have  but  two.  The 
first,  according  to  our  method,  form  but  the  single  genus 

Mygale. 

Their  eyes  always  situated  at  the  anterior  extremity  of  the  thorax,  and  usu- 
ally closely  approximated;  feet  and  chelicerae  robust.  Most  of  them  have 
but  four  fusi(l),  of  which  the  two  lateral  or  external,  situated  somewhat 


(1)  Filieresy  i.  e.  the  papills  or  fusi  through  which  the  thread  passes. 


PULMONARIiE.  327 

above  the  others,  are  longest,  and  consist  of  three  segments,  exclusive  of  the 
prominence  that  forms  their  peduncle.  They  weave  silken  tubes  in  which 
they  reside,  and  which  they  conceal  either  in  holes  excavated  by  them  for 
that  purpose,  or  under  stones,  bark  of  trees,  or  between  leaves. 

This  genus  now  forms  several  divisions,  characterized  by  the  number  of 
fusi,  the  relative  difference  in  the  length  of  the  legs  and  the  situations  of 
the  palpi.     In  the 

Mtgale,  Walck., 

Or  the  trtie  My  gales,  the  hairs  which  decorate  the  under  part  of  their  tarsi 
form  a  thick  and  broad  brush,  projecting  beyond  the  hooks,  and  usually 
concealing  them. 

This  division  is  composed  of  the  largest  species  of  the  family,  some  of 
which,  when  at  rest,  cover  a  circular  space  of  from  six  to  seven  inches  in 
diameter.  They  sometimes  seize  upon  Humming-Birds.  They  establish  their 
domicil  in  the  clefts  of  trees,  under  the  bark,  in  the  fissures  of  rocks,  or  on 
the  surface  of  leaves  of  various  plants.  The  cell  of  the  Mygale  avicularia 
has  the  form  of  a  tube,  narrowed  into  a  point  at  its  posterior  extremity.  It 
consists  of  a  white  web,  of  a  close,  very  fine  texture,  semi-diaphanous,  and 
resembling  muslin. 

South  America  and  the  Antilles  produce  other  species,  called  by  the 
French  colonists  Araignees-crahes,  or  Crab-spiders.  Their  bite  is  reputed 
to  be  dangerous.  A  very  large  species — M.  fasciata — is  also  found  in  the 
East  Indies.  A  species,  nearly  as  large  as  the  avicularia,  inhabits  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope. 

In  the  following  Mygales,  the  superior  extremity  of  the  first  joint  of  the 
chelicerse  presents  a  series  of  spines,  articulated  and  movable  at  base,  and 
forming  a  sort  of  rake.  The  tarsi  are  less  pilose  underneath  than  in  the 
preceding  division,  and  their  hooks  are  always  exposed. 

These  species,  in  the  dry  and  mountain  districts  of  the  south  of  Europe 
and  of  some  other  countries,  excavate  subterraneous  galleries,  which  are 
frequently  two  feet  in  depth,  and  so  extremely  tortuous,  that,  according  to 
Dufour,  it  is  frequently  impossible  to  trace  them.  At  the  mouth,  they  con- 
struct a  movable  operculum  with  earth  and  silk,  fixed  by  a  hinge,  which, 
from  its  form,  nicely  adjusted  to  the  aperture,  its  inclination,  its  weight, 
and  the  superior  position  of  the  hinge,  spontaneously  shuts,  and  completely 
closes  the  entrance  of  their  habitation,  forming  a  kind  of  trap-door,  which 
is  scarcely  distinguishable  from  the  surrounding  earth.  Its  inner  surface 
is  lined  with  a  layer  of  silk,  to  which  the  animal  clings,  in  order  to  keep  its 
door  shut  and  prevent  intruders  from  opening  it.  If  it  be  slightly  raised, 
it  is  a  sure  indication  that  the  owner  is  within.  Unearthed,  by  laying  open 
the  gallery  front  of  the  entrance,  it  becomes  stupified,  and  allows  itself  to 
be  captured  without  resistance.  A  silken  tube,  or  the  nest  properly  so 
called,  lines  the  inside  of  the  gallery.     There  are  several  species. 

The  remaining  subgenera  are  Atypus,  Eriodon,  Sec,  differing  in  the  in- 
sertion of  the  palpi,  the  ligula,  number  of  eyes,  &c. 


328  ARACHNIDES. 

We  now  pass  to  Araneides  with  but  one  pair  of  pulmonary  sacs,  and  as 
many  stigroata.  They  all  have  palpi  formed  of  five  joints,  inserted  into 
the  external  side  of  the  jaws  near  their  base,  and  most  frequently  in  a  sinus; 
a  ligula  extending  between  them  either  nearly  square,  triangular  or  semi- 
circular and  six  fusi  at  the  extremity. 

With  the  exception  of  a  few  species,  which  enter  into  the  genus  Mygale, 
they  compose  that  of 

Aranea,  Lin. 
A  first  division  will  comprehend  the  ARANEiE  Sedentahi^,  or  sedentary 
spiders.  They  make  webs,  or  throw  out  threads  to  ensnare  their  prey, 
and  always  remain  in  these  traps,  or  their  vicinity,  as  well  as  near  their  eggs. 
Their  eyes  are  approximated  antei'iorly  and  are  sometimes  eight  in  number, 
of  which  four  or  two  are  in  the  middle  and  two  or  three  on  each  side,  and 
sometimes  six. 

Some,  which,  from  the  circumstance  of  their  always  moving  forwards,  we 
term  the  Rectigradjb,  weave  webs  and  are  stationary;  their  legs  are  eleva- 
ted when  at  rest;  sometimes  the  two  first  and  two  last  are  the  longest,  and 
at  others  those  of  the  two  anterior  pairs,  or  the  fourth  and  the  third.  The 
general  arrangement  of  the  eyes  does  not  form  the  segment  of  a  circle  or  a 
crescent- 

They  may  be  divided  into  three  sections:  the  first,  or  that  of  the  Tubite- 
\x,  has  cyhndrical  fusi  approximated  into  a  fasciculus  directed  backwards; 
the  legs  are  robust,  the  two  first  or  the  two  last,  and  vice  versa,  longest  in 
some,  and  the  whole  eight  nearly  equal  in  others. 

Clotho,  Walck. 

A  singular  subgenus.  The  chelicerae  are  very  small,  can  separate  but 
little,  and  are  not  indented;  very  small  hooks;  the  shortness  of  the  body  and 
length  of  the  legs  produce  a  resemblance  to  the  Ci-ab-Spiders  or  Thomisi. 
The  relative  length  of  these  organs  differs  but  little;  the  fourth  pair,  and  then 
the  preceding  one  are  merely  somewhat  longer  than  the  first;  the  tarsi,  only, 
are  fui-nished  with  spines.  The  eyes  are  further  from  the  anterior  margin 
of  the  thorax  than  in  the  following  subgenus,  and  are  approximated  and 
arranged  as  in  the  genus  Mygale  of  Walckenaer;  three  on  each  side  form  a 
reversed  triangle;  the  two  others  form  a  transverse  line  in  the  space  com- 
prised between  the  two  triangles.  The  jaws  and  the  ligula  are  proportion- 
ably  smaller  than  those  of  the  same  subgenus;  a  short  projection  or  slight  di- 
latation on  the  external  side  of  the  jaws,  gives  insertion  to  the  palpi;  the  jaws 
terminate  in  a  point;  the  ligula  is  triangular  and  not  nearly  oval  as  in  Drassus. 
The  two  superior  or  most  lateral  fusi  are  long,  but  what,  according  to  Du- 
four,  particularly  characterises  the  Clothos,  is,  that  there  are  two  pectini- 
form  valves  which  open  and  shut  at  the  will  of  the  animal,  in  place  of  the 
two  intermediate  fusi. 

But  u  single  species  is  known,  the  Clotho  Durandit,  Lat.     M.  Dufour 


PULMONARl^.  329 

found  it  in  the  mountains  of  Narbonne,  in  the  Pyrennees  and  among^  the 
rocks  of  Catalonia.  To  this  latter  naturalist  we  are  indebted  not  only  for 
our  knowledge  of  the  external  characters  of  this  spider,  but  for  many  curi- 
ous observations  relative  to  its  habits.  "She  constructs,"  says  he,  "  a  shell 
resembling  a  calotte  an  inch  in  diameter,  on  the  under  surface  of  large 
stones  or  in  the  fissures  of  rocks.  Its  contour  presents  seven  or  eight 
emarginations,  the  angles  of  which  are  alone  attached  to  tl>e  stone  by  silken 
fasciculi,  the  margin  being  free.  This  singular  tent  is  admirably  woven. 
The  exterior  resembles  the  very  finest  taffeta,  formed,  according  to  the  age 
of  the  animal,  of  a  greater  or  less  number  of  layers.  Thus,  when  the  young 
Uroctea  first  commences  her  establishment,  she  merely  forms  two  webs 
between  which  she  seeks  for  shelter.  Subsequently,  and  I  believe  at  each 
change  of  tegument,  she  adds  a  certain  number  of  layers.  Finally,  she  lines 
an  apartment  with  a  softer  and  more  downy  material  which  is  to  enclose  the 
sac  of  eggs  and  young  ones.  Although  the  exterior  shell  is  more  or  less  soiled 
by  foreign  bodies  which  serve  to  conceal  it,  the  chamber  of  tlie  industrious 
architect  is  always  extremely  neat  and  clean.  There  are  four,  five,  or  six 
egg-pouches  or  sacculi  in  each  domicil;  they  are  lenticular,  more  than  four 
lines  in  diameter,  and  formed  of  a  snow-white  taffeta  lined  with  the  softest 
down.  The  ova  are  not  produced  till  tlie  latter  end  of  December  or  the 
beginning  of  January;  the  young  are  to  be  protected  from  the  rigour  of 
winter  and  the  incursions  of  enemies — all  is  prepared;  the  receptacle  of 
this  precious  deposit  is  separated  from  the  web  that  adheres  to  the  stone  by 
soft  down,  and  from  the  external  calotte  by  the  various  layers  I  have  men- 
tioned. Some  of  the  emarginations  in  the  edge  of  the  pavilion  are  com- 
pletely closed  by  the  continuity  of  the  web,  the  edges  of  the  remainder  are 
merely  laid  on  each  other,  so  that  by  raising  them  up,  the  animal  can  issue 
from  its  tent  or  enter  it,  at  pleasure.  When  the  Uroctea  leaves  herhabi- 
tation  for  the  chase,  she  has  nothing  to  fear,  she  only  possesses  the  secret 
of  the  impenetrable  emargination,  and  has  the  key  to  those  which  alone 
afford  an  entrance.  When  her  offspring  are  able  to  provide  for  themselves, 
they  leave  their  native  dwelling,  to  establish  elsewhere  their  individual 
habitations,  while  the  mother  returns  to  it  and  dies — it  is  thus  her  cradle  and 
her  tomb." 

There  are  several  other  genera  of  this  section,  such  as  Drassus,  Segesirta, 
Clubiona,  &c.,  in  the  last  of  which,  as  well  as  in  the  following  ones,  we  find 
eight  eyes.  They  form  two  families,  the  Terrestrial  and  Aquatic.  Some 
(Clubiona)  construct  silken  tubes  under  stones;  and  others  ( Aranea  proper), 
a  web  with  a  tube,  in  our  houses,  along  hedges,  &c. 

In  the  second  section  of  the  sedentary  and  rectigrade  spiders,that  of  the 
IirEauiTELa;,  the  external  papillae  are  nearly  conical,  project  but  httle,  are 
convergent,  and  form  a  rosette;  the  legs  are  very  slender.  The  jaws  in- 
cline over  the  lip,  and  become  naiTower  at  their  superior  extremity,  or  at 
least  do  not  sensibly  widen . 

Most  of  them  have  the  first  pair  of  legs  longest,  and  then  the  foui-th.  The 
2  R 


330  ARACHNIDES. 

abdomen  is  more  voluminous,  softer,  and  more  coloured  than  in  the  pre- 
ceding tribes.  Their  webs  form  an  irregular  net  composed  of  threads 
which  cross  each  other  in  every  direction  and  on  several  planes.  They 
lie  in  wait  for  their  prey,  display  much  anxiety  for  the  preservation  of  their 
eggs,  and  never  abandon  them  till  they  are  hatched.     They  are  short-lived. 

There  are  several  genera  such  as  Scytodes,  Theridion,  Episinus,  &c-,  dif- 
fering in  the  number  of  eyes,  and  the  mode  of  their  arrangement;  the  shape 
of  the  thorax,  &c. 

In  the  tliird  section  of  the  sedentary  rectigrade  spiders,  the  Okbitel^, 
the  external  fusi  are  almost  conical,  slightly  salient,  convergent,  and  form 
a  rosette,  the  legs  are  slender,  as  in  the  preceding  section,  but  the  jaws 
are  straight  and  evidently  wider  at  their  extremity. 

The  first  pair  of  legs,  and  then  the  second,  are  always  the  longest. 
There  are  eight  eyes  thus  an-anged:  four  in  the  middle  forming  a  quadri- 
lateral, and  two  on  each  side. 

The  Orbitelse  approach  the  Inequitelae  in  the  size,  softness,  and  diversity 
of  colour  of  the  abdomen,  and  in  their  short  term  of  existence;  but  their 
web  is  a  regular  piece  of  net-work,  composed  of  concentric  circles  inter- 
cepted by  straight  radii  diverging  from  the  centre,  where  they  almost  always 
remain,  and  in  an  inverted  position,  at  the  circumference.  Some  conceal 
themselves  in  a  cell  or  cavity  which  they  have  constructed  near  the  margin 
of  the  web,  which  is  sometimes  horizontal,  and  at  others  perpendicular. 
Their  eggs  are  agglutinated,  very  numerous,  and  inclosed  in  a  voluminous 
eocoon. 

The  threads  which  support  the  web,  and  which  can  be  extended  one- 
fifth  of  their  length,  are  used  for  the  divisions  of  the  micrometer. 

LiNTPHIA,  Lat. 

The.  Linyphiae  are  well  characterized  by  the  disposition  of  their  eyes: 
four  in  the  middle  form  a  trapezium,  the  posterior  side  of  which  is  widest, 
and  is  occupied  by  two  eyes  much  larger  and  more  distant;  the  remaining 
four  are  grouped  in  pairs,  one  on  each  side,  and  in  an  oblique  line.  The 
jaws  are  only  widened  at  their  superior  extremity. 

They  construct  on  bushes  a  loose,  thin,  horizontal  web,  attaching  to  its 
upper  surface,  at  different  points,  or  irregularly,  separate  threads.  The 
animal  remains  at  its  inferior  portion,  and  in  a  reversed  position. 

UtoBORtrs,  Lat. 

The  four  posterior  eyes  placed  at  equal  intervals  on  a  straight  line,  and 
the  two  lateral  ones  of  the  first  line  nearer  to  the  anterior  edge  of  the  tho- 
rax than  the  two  comprised  between  them,  so  that  this  line  is  arcuated  pos- 
teriorly. The  tarsi  of  the  three  last  pairs  of  legs  terminate  by  one  small 
nail.     The  first  joint  of  the  two  posterior  ones  has  a  range  of  small  setae. 

The  body  of  these  animals,  as  well  as  in  the  following  subgenus,  is  elon- 
gated and  nearly  cylindrical.     Placed  in  the  centre  of  their  web,  they  ad- 


PULMONARI-(E.  331 

vance  their  four  anterior  legs  in  a  straight  line,  and  extend  the  two  last  in 
an  opposite  direction;  those  of  the  third  pair  project  laterally. 

These  Arachnides  consti-uct  webs  similar  to  those  of  other  Oi'bitelx,  but 
they  are  looser  and  more  horizontal.  They  will  completely  envelope  the 
body  of  a  small  coleopterous  insect  in  less  than  three  minutes. 

Tethagxatha,  Lat. 
The  eyes  placed  four  by  four  on  two  nearly  parallel  lines,  and  separated 
by  almost  equal  intervals;  jaws  long,  narrow,  and  only  widened  at  their  su- 
perior extremity.     The  chelicerae  are  also  very  long,  in  the  males  especially. 
The  web  is  vertical. 

Epeiha,  Walck. 

The  two  eyes  on  each  side  approximated  by  pairs,  and  almost  contiguous; 
the  remaining  four  forming  a  quadrilateral  in  the  middle.  The  jaws  dilate 
from  their  base,  and  form  a  rounded  palette. 

The  cucurbitina  is  the  only  species  known  whose  web  is  horizontal;  that 
of  the  others  is  vertical,  or  sometimes  oblique. 

Some  place  themselves  in  its  centre  in  a  reversed  position,  or  with  their 
head  downwards;  others  construct  a  domicil  close  by  it,  either  vaulted  on 
all  sides,  or  forming  a  silky  tube  composed  of  leaves  drawn  together  by 
threads,  or  open  above,  and  resembhng  a  cup  or  the  nest  of  a  bird.  The 
web  of  some  exotic  species  is  formed  of  such  stout  materials  that  it  will  ar- 
rest small  Birds,  and  even  impede  the  progress  of  a  Man. 

Their  cocoon  is  usually  globular;  that  of  some  species,  however,  is  a  trun- 
cated oval,  or  very  short  cone. 

The  natives  of  New  Holland  and  those  of  some  of  the  South  Sea  Islands, 
for  want  of  other  food,  eat  a  species  of  Epeira,  closely  allied  to  the  Aranea 
esuriens.  Fab.     They  are  numerous. 

We  now  come  to  Spiders  that  are  sedentary,  like  the  preceding,  but 
which  have  the  faculty  of  moving  sideways,  forwards  and  backwards,  in  a 
word,  in  all  directions.  They  constitute  our  section  of  the  LATEniGSADjE. 
The  four  anterior  legs  are  always  longer  than  the  others;  sometimes  the 
second  pair  surpasses  the  first,  and  at  others,  they  are  nearly  equal;  the  ani- 
mal extends  them  to  the  whole  of  their  length  on  the  plane  of  position. 

The  chelicerae  are  usuall}'  small,  and  their  hook  is  folded  transversely,  as 
in  the  four  preceding  tribes.  Their  eyes,  always  eight  in  number,  are  fre- 
quently very  unequal,  and  form  a  segment  of  a  circle  or  crescent;  the  two 
posterior  lateral  ones  are  placed  farther  back  than  the  others,  or  are  nearef 
to  the  lateral  margin  of  the  thorax.  The  jaws,  in  most  of  them,  are  inclined 
on  the  lip.  The  body  is  usually  flattened,  resembling  a  Crab;  the  abdomen 
is  large,  rounded,  and  triangular. 

These  Arachnides  remain  motionless  on  plants,  with  tlieir  feet  extended. 
They  make  no  web,  simply  throwing  out  a  few  solitary  threads  to  arrest 
their  prey.  Their  cocoon  is  orbicular  and  flattened.  They  conceal  it  be- 
tween  leaves,  and  watch  it  until  tlie  young  ones  are  hatched. 


332  ARACHNIDES. 

The  Laterigi-adx  form  several  genera,  such  as  Micrommata,  Senelops,  &C. 

Other  Araiieae  whose  eyes,  always  eight  in  number,  extend  more  along 
the  lengthof  the  thorax  than  across  its  breadth,  or  at  least  almost  as  much 
in  one  direction  as  the  other,  and  which  form  either  a  truncated  curvilinear 
triangle  or  oval,  or  a  quadrilateral,  constitute  a  second  general  division,  or 
the  VAGABTJiirDa!;,  which  I  have  thus  named  to  distinguish  them  from  those 
of  the  first,  or  the  Sedentarias. 

Two  or  four  of  their  eyes  are  frequently  much  larger  than  the  others; 
the  thorax  is  large  and  the  legs  robust;  those  of  the  fourth  pair  and  then 
the  two  first,  or  those  of  the  second  pair,  are  usually  the  longest. 

They  make  no  web,  but  watch  for  their  prey  and  seize  it,  either  by  hunt- 
ing it  down,  or  by  suddenly  leaping  upon  it. 

This  division  forms  two  sections,  each  consisting  of  several  genera.  In 
the  first,  or  that  of  the  CiTiGKADa;,  we  find  the  genus 

Ltcosa,  Lat. 

The  eyes  of  the  Lycosaeform  a  quadrilateral,  but  one  as  long  as  or  longer 
than  it  is  wide;  the  two  posterior  eyes  are  not  placed  on  an  elevation.  The 
first  pair  of  legs  is  evidently  longer  than  the  second,  but  shorter  than  the 
fourth,  which,  in  this  respect,  surpasses  all  the  others.  The  internal  extre- 
mity of  the  jaws  is  obliquely  truncated.  The  ligula  is  square  but  longer 
than  it  is  broad. 

Almost  all  the  Lycosae  keep  on  the  ground,  where  they  run  with  g^eat 
swiftness.  They  inhabit  holes  accidentally  presented  to  them,  or  which  they 
excavate,  lining  their  parietes  with  silk,  and  enlarging  them  in  proportion 
to  their  growth.  Some  establish  their  domicil  in  chinks  and  cavities  in 
walls,  where  tTiey  form  a  silken  tube  covered  externally  with  particles  of 
earth  or  sand.  In  these  retreats  they  change  their  tegument,  and  as  it  ap- 
pears, after^  closing  the  opening,  pass  the  winter.  There  also  the  females 
lay  their  eggs.  When  they  go  abroad  they  cany  their  cocoon  with  them, 
attached  to  the  abdomen  by  threads.  On  issuing  from  the  egg  the 
young  ones  cling  to  the  body  of  the  mother,  and  remain  there  until  they 
are  able  to  provide  for  themselves. 

The  Lycosse  are  extremely  voracious,  and  courageously  defend  their 
dwelling. 

A  species  of  this  genus,  the  Tarentula,  so  called  from  Tarentum,  a  city  of 
Italy,  in  the  environs  of  which  it  is  common,  is  highly  celebrated.  The 
poisonous  nature  of  its  bite  is  thought  to  produce  the  most  serious  conse- 
quences, being  frequently  followed  by  death  or  Tarentism,  results  which 
can  only  be  avoided  by  the  aid  of  music  and  dancing.  Well  informed 
persons,  however,  think  it  more  necessary  in  these  cases  to  combat  the  ter- 
rors of  the  imagination  than  to  apply  an  antidote  to  the  poison;  medicine  at 
all  events  presents  other  means  of  cure. 

In  the  second  section  of  the  Vagabundae,  that  of  the  Saltigradx,  the 
eyes  form  a  large  quadrilateral,  the  anterior  side  of  which,  or  the  line 
formed  by  the  fii-st  ones,  extends  across  the  whole  width  of  the  thorax;  this 


PULMONAEI^.  333 

part  of  the  body  is  almost  square  or  semi-ovoid,  plane  or  but  slightly  con- 
vex above,  as  wide  anteriorly  as  in  the  rest  of  its  extent,  and  descending 
suddenly  on  the  sides.  The  legs  are  fitted  for  running  and  leaping.  The 
thighs  of  tlie  two  fore  legs  are  remarkable  for  their  size. 

The  Araignee  a  chevrons  blancs  of  Geoffroy,  a  species  of  Salticus  very  com- 
mon in  summer  on  walls  or  windows  exposed  to  the  sun,  moves  by  jerks, 
stops  short  after  a  few  steps  and  raises  itself  on  its  fore  legs.  If  it  discover 
a  fly,  or  particularly  amusquito,  it  approaches  softly,  and  then  darts  upon 
the  victim  with  a  single  bound.  It  leaps  fearlessly  and  perpendicularly  on 
a  wall,  being  always  attached  to  it  by  a  thread,  which  lengthens  as  it  ad- 
vances. This  same  filament  also  supports  it  in  the  air,  enables  it  to  ascend 
to  its  point  of  departure,  and  allows  it  to  be  wafted  by  the  wind  from  one 
place  to  another.  Such,  generally,  are  the  habits  of  the  species  that  be- 
long to  this  division. 

Several  construct  nests  of  silk  resembling  oval  sacs  open  at  both  ends,  be- 
tween leaves,  under  stones,  &c.  Thither  they  retire  to  change  their  tegu- 
ment and  to  seek  shelter  in  bad  weather.  If  danger  menaces  them  there, 
they  leave  it  at  once  and  escape  with  speed. 

The  females  construct  a  sort  of  tent,  which  becomes  the  cradle  of  their 
posterity,  and  in  which  the  young  ones,  for  a  time,  Uve  in  common  with  the 
mother.     There  are  several  subgenera. 


FAMILY  II. 

PEDIPALPL 

In  the  second  family  of  the  Pulmonariae,  we  find  very  large  palpi, 
resembling  projecting  arms,  terminated  by  a  forceps  or  a  claw;  di- 
dactyle  chelicerae,  one  finger  of  which  is  movable,  and  an  abdomen 
composed  of  very  distinct  segments,  without  fusi  at  the  extremity. 
The  whole  body  is  invested  with  a  firm  tegument;  the  thorax  con- 
sists of  a  single  piece,  and  exhibits  three  or  two  simple  eyes,  ap- 
proximated or  grouped,  near  the  anterior  angles;  and  near  the  mid- 
dle of  its  anterior  extremity,  or  posteriorly,  but  in  the  median  line, 
two  others  equally  simple  and  approximated.  There  are  four  or 
eight  pulmonary  sacs.     Those  which  form  the  genus 

Tarantula,  Fab., 

Have  their  abdomen  attached  to  their  thorax  by  a  pedicle,  or  portion  of 
their  transverse  diameter;  it  has  no  pectinated  laminae  at  its  base,  nor  sting 
at  its  extremity.  Their  stigmata,  four  in  number,  are  situated  near  the  ori- 
gin of  the  venter,  and  are  covered  with  a  plate.  Their  chelicerse  (mandi- 
bles) are  simply  terminated  by  a  movable  hook.     Tlieir  ligula  is  elongated. 


334  ARACHNIDES. 

very  narrow,  and  concealed.  They  have  but  two  jaws,  which  are  formed 
by  the  first  joint  of  their  palpi. 

They  all  have  eight  eyes,  of  which  three,  on  each  side  and  near  the  an- 
terior angles,  form  a  triangle;  and  two  near  the  middle  at  the  anterior  mar- 
gin are  placed  on  a  common  tubercle  or  httle  elevation,  one  on  each  side. 
The  palpi  are  spinous.  The  tarsi  of  the  two  anterior  legs  differ  from  the 
others,  being  formed  of  numerous  setaceous  or  filiform  joints,  and  without 
a  terminal  nail. 

They  are  confined  to  the  hottest  portions  of  Asia  and  America.  Their 
habits  are  unknown  to  us.  They  now  constitute  two  subgenera,  PHKiKtrs, 
Oliv,  and  Theltphonus,  Lat. 

The  others  have  their  abdomen  intimately  united  to  the  thorax 
throughout  its  entire  width,  presenting,  at  its  inferior  base,  two 
movable  pectiniform  laminge,  and  terminated  by  a  knotted  tail 
armed  with  a  terminal  sting.  Their  stigmata,  eight  in  number,  are 
exposed,  and  arranged  four  by  four  along  the  abdomen;  their  che- 
liceras  are  terminated  by  two  fingers,  of  which  the  exterior  is  mov- 
able.    They  form  the  genus 

Scorpio,  Lin.,  Fab. 
Scorpions  have  an  elongated  body,  suddenly  terminated  by  a  long  slender 
tail  formed  of  six  joints,  the  last  of  which  terminates  in  an  arcuated  and  ex- 
cessively acute  point  or  sting,  which  aflPords  issue  to  a  venomous  fluid  con- 
tained in  an  internal  reservoir,  forming  a  long  square,  and  usually  marked  in 
the  middle  by  a  longitudinal  sulcus,  presenting  on  each  side,  and  near  its  an- 
terior extremity,  three  or  two  simple  eyes,  forming  a  curved  line,  and  near 
the  middle  of  the  back  two  others,  also  simple,  which  are  approximated. 
The  palpi  are  very  large,  with  a  forceps  at  the  extremity  resembhng  a 
hand;  their  first  joint  forms  a  concave  and  rounded  jaw. 

These  Arachnides  inhabit  the  hot  countries  of  both  hemispheres,  live  on 
the  ground,  conceal  themselves  under  stones  and  other  bodies,  most  com- 
monly in  ruins,  dark  and  cool  places,  and  even  in  houses.  They  run  with 
considerable  swiftness,  curving  their  tail  over  their  back.  They  can  turn 
it  in  every  direction,  and  use  it  for  the  purposes  of  attack  and  defence. 
With  their  forceps  they  seize  Onisci  and  various  insects,  Carabici,  Orthop- 
terse,  &c.,  on  which  they  feed,  pierce  them  with  their  sting  by  directing  it 
forwards,  and  then  pass  their  prey  through  their  chelicerae  and  jaws.  They 
are  particularly  fond  of  the  eggs  of  Spiders  and  of  Insects. 
•  The  wound  occasioned  by  the  sting  of  the  europaeus  is  not  usually  dan- 
gerous. That  of  the  Scorpion  of  Souvignargues,  of  Maupertius,  of  the  spe- 
cies which  I  have  named  Roussatre  (occilanus),  and  which  is  larger  than  the 
preceding  one,  according  to  the  experiments  of  Dr  Maccary  courageously 
tried  upon  himself,  produces  serious  and  alarming  symptoms;  the  older  the 
animal  the  more  active  seems  to  be  the  poison.     The  remedy  employed  is 


PULMONARI^.  335 

the  volatile  alkali,  used  externally  and  internally.      There  are  several 
species. 


ORDER  II. 
TRACHEARI^. 

The  Arachriides  which  compose  this  order  differ  from  those  of 
the  preceding  one  in  their  organs  of  respiration,  which  consist  of 
radiated  or  ramified  trache8e(l),  that  only  receive  air  through  two 
stigmata;  in  the  absence  of  an  organ  of  circulation;  and  in  the  num- 
ber of  their  eyes,  which  is  but  from  two  to  four.  The  want  of  suffi- 
ciently general  anatomical  observations,  has  prevented  the  limits  of 
this  order  from  being  rigorously  determined.  Some  of  these 
Arachnides,  the  Pycnogonides  for  instance,  exhibit  no  stigmata; 
their  mode  of  respiration  is  unknown. 

The  Tracheariae  are  very  naturally  divided  into  those  which  are 
furnished  with  chelicerae,  terminated  by  two  fingers,  one  of  which  is 
movable,  or  by  one  that  is  equally  so;  and  into  those  where  these 
organs  are  replaced  by  simple  laminas,  or  lancets,  which  with  the 
ligula  constitute  a  sucker.  Most  of  these  animals,  however,  being 
very  small,  great  difficulties  necessarily  accompany  these  investiga- 
tions, and  it  is  readily  perceived  that  such  characters  should  only  be 
resorted  to  when  it  is  impossible  to  avoid  it. 

FAMILY  I. 

PSEUDO-SCORPIONES. 

In  this  family  we  find  the  thorax  articulated,  its  first  segment  much 
the  largest,  and  resembling  a  corselet;  the  abdomen  is  very  distinct 
and  annulated,  and  the  palpi  very  large  and  in  the  form  of  legs  or 
claws.  There  are  eight  legs  with  two  equal  hooks  at  the  extremity 
of  the  tarsi,  the  two  anterior  ones,  at  most,  excepted,  and  two  appa- 


(1)  The  trachex  are  vessels  which  receive  the  aerial  fluid  and  distribute 
it  to  every  part  of  the  interior  of  the  body,  and  thus  remedy  the  want  of 
circulation. 


336  ARACHNIDES. 

rent  cheliceras  terminated  by  two  fingers  and  two  toes,  formed  by 
the  first  joint  of  the  palpi.  They  are  all  terrestrial,  and  have  an 
oval  or  oblong  body.     This  family  comprehends  but  two  genera. 

Galeodes,  OJiv. — Solpuga,  Licht.,  Fab. 
Two  very  large  chelicerse,  with  strongly  dentated  vertical  fingers,  one  su- 
perior, fixed,  and  frequently  furnished  at  its  base  with  a  slender,  elongated, 
pointed  appendage,  and  the  other  movable;  large  projecting  palpi  in  the 
form  of  feet  or  antennje,  terminated  by  a  short,  vesicular  joint,  resembling 
a  button  without  a  terminal  hook;  the  two  anterior  feet  of  an  almost  similar 
figure,  equally  unarmed,  but  smaller. 

Their  body  is  oblong,  generally  soft,  and  bristled  with  long  hairs.  The 
last  joint  of  the  palpi,  according  to  M.  Dufour,  contains  a  particular  organ 
formed  like  a  disk,  of  a  nacre-white,  and  which  never  protrudes  unless  the 
animal  is  imtated.  The  two  anterior  feet  maybe  considered  as  second 
palpi.     The  abdomen  is  oval,   and  composed  of  nine  annuli. 

It  is  supposed  that  the  ancients  designated  these  animals  by  the  names  of 
Phalangium,  Solifuga,  Tetragnatha,  &.c.  M.  Poe  discovered  a  species  in 
the  environs  of  Havana,  but  the  others  are  peculiar  to  the  hot  and  sandy 
countries  of  the  eastern  continent.  They  run  with  great  celerity,  erect 
their  head  when  surprised,  and  show  signs  of  resistance;  they  are  considered 
venomous. 

Chemfer,  GeofiT. — Obisium,l\\\g. 

The  palpi  elongated  in  the  form  of  an  arm,  with  a  hand  terminated  by  a 
didactyle  forceps;  all  the  legs  equal,  terminated  by  two  hooks;  the  eyes 
placed  on  the  sides  of  the  thorax. 

These  animals  resemble  small  Scorpions  destitute  of  a  tail.  Their  body 
is  flattened,  and  the  thorax  nearly  square,  with  one  or  two  eyes  on  each  side. 

They  run  swiftly,  and  frequently  retrograde  or  mpve  sideways  like  Crabs. 


FAMILY  II. 

PYCNOGONIDES. 

The  trunk,  in  this  family,  is  composed  of  four  segments,  occupy- 
ing nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  body  and  terminated  at  each 
extremity  by  a  tubular  joint,  the  anterior  of  which  is  the  largest, 
sometimes  simple,  and  sometimes  accompanied  by  chelicerae  and 
palpi,  or  only  one  kind  of  these  organs,  that  constitutes  the  mouth. 
There  are  eight  legs  in  both  sexes,  formed  for  running,  but  the  fe- 
male is  furnished  with  two  additional  false  ones,  placed  near  the 
two  anterior,  and  solely  destined  to  carry  her  eggs. 


TRACHEARIiE.  ^7 

The  Pycnogonides  are  marine  animals,  analogous  either  to  the 
Cyami  and  the  Caprellae,  or  to  the  Arachnides  of  the  genus  Phalan- 
gium,  where  Linnseus  placed  them.  Their  body  is  commonly  linear, 
with  very  long  legs,  composed  of  eight  or  nine  joints,  terminated 
by  two  unequal  hooks  which  appear  to  form  but  one,  and  the  small- 
est of  which  is  cleft.  The  first  segment  of  the  body,  which  replaces 
the  head  and  mouth,  forms  a  projecting  tube,  cylindrical  or  in  the 
form  of  a  truncated  cone,  with  a  triangular  aperture  at  its  extre- 
mity. The  cheliceraB  and  palpi  are  placed  at  its  base.  The  former 
are  cylindrical  or  linear,  simply  prehensile,  and  composed  of  two 
joints,  the  last  of  which  is  a  forceps,  the  inferior  finger  or  the  one  that 
is  fixed  being  sometimes  shorter  than  the  other.  The  palpi  are  fili- 
form, and  consist  of  five  or  nine  joints,  with  a  terminal  hook. 
Each  of  the  following  segments,  the  last  excepted,  bears  a  pair  of 
legs;  but  the  first,  or  the  one  articulated  with  the  mouth  has  a  tuber- 
cle on  the  back,  on  which  are  placed  two  eyes  on  each  side,  and 
beneath,  in  the  females  only,  two  additional  small  folded  legs,  bear- 
ing the  eggs  which  are  collected  around  them  in  one  or  two  pellets. 
The  last  segment  is  small,  cylindrical  and  perforated  by  a  little  ori- 
fice at  the  extremity.     No  vestige  of  stigmata  can  be  perceived. 

They  are  found  among  marine  plants,  sometimes  under  stones 
near  the  beach,  and  occasionally  also  on  the  Cetacea. 

Pycnogonum,  Brun.,  Mull.,  Fab. 
The  chelicerse  and  palpi  wanting;  length  of  the  feet  hardly  greater  than 
that  of  the  body,  which  is  proportionably  thicker  and  shorter  than  in  the 
following  genera.     They  live  on  the  Cetacea. 

Phoxichilus,  Lat. 

The  palpi  wanting,  as  in  the  PhoxichiU;  but  the  legs  are  very  long,  and 
there  are  two  chelicerae. 

Nymphon,  Fab. 
The  Nymphones  resemble  the  PhoxichiU  in  the  narrow  and  oblong  form  of 
their  body,  the  length  of  their  legs;  and  in  the  presence  of  chelicerx;  bat 
they  have,  besides,  two  palpi. 


2  S 


338  ARACHNIDES, 

FAMILY  III. 
HOLETRA. 

The  trunk  and  abdomen  are  here  united  in  one  mass,  under  3 
common  epidermis,  or  at  most,  the  thorax  is  divided  by  a  strangu- 
lation, and  the  abdomen,  in  some,  merely  exhibits  an  appearance 
of  annuh,  formed  by  the  plicae  of  the  abdomen. 

The  anterior  extremity  of  their  body  frequently  projects  in  the 
form  of  a  snout  or  rostrum;  most  of  them  have  eight  legs,  and  the 
remainder  six. 

This  family  consists  of  two  tribes.  In  the  first  or  the  Phalatj- 
GiTA,  Lat.,  we  observe  very  apparent  chelicerse  which  either  project 
in  front  of  the  trunk,  or  are  inferior,  and  always  terminating  in  a 
didactyle  forceps,  preceded  by  one  or  two  joints. 

They  have  two  filiform  palpi,  composed  of  five  joints,  the  last  of 
which  is  terminated  by  a  small  nail;  two  distinct  eyes;  two  jaws 
formed  by  the  prolongation  of  the  radical  joint  of  the  palpi,  and 
frequently  four  more,  which  are  also  a  mere  dilatation  of  the  hip  of 
the  two  first  pairs  of  legs.  The  body  is  oval  or  rounded,  and  co- 
vered, the  trunk  at  least,  with  a  firmer  skin;  there  is  also  an  appear- 
ance of  annulior  plicae  on  the  abdomen.  The  legs,  of  which  there 
are  always  eight,  are  long,  and  distinctly  divided,  like  those  of  In- 
sects. At  the  origin  of  the  two  posterior  legs,  at  least  in  several 
— Phalangium — are  two  stigmata,  one  on  each  side,  but  hidden  by 
their  hips. 

Most  of  them  live  on  the  ground,  at  the  foot  of  trees,  and  on 
plants,  and  are  very  active;  others  conceal  themselves  under  stones 
and  in  moss. 

Phalangium,  Lin.,  Fab. 
The  chelicerjc  projecting-,  much  shorter  than  the  body;  eyes  placed  on  a 
common  tubercle.     Their  legs  are  very  long  and  slender,  and  when  de- 
tached from  the  body  show  signs  of  irritability  for  a  few  moments. 
There  are  some  other  genera,  viz.  Siro,  Macrocheles  and  Trogulus. 

In  the  second  tribe  of  the  Holetra,  that  of  the  Acarides,  we 
sometimes  find  chelicerag,  but  they  are  simply  formed  of  a  single 
forceps,  either  didactyle  or  monodactyle,  and  are  hidden  in  a  sternal 
lip;  sometimes  there  is  a  sucker  formed  of  united  lancets;  or  finally 


TRACHEARI^.  339 

the  mouth  consists  of  a  simple  cavity  without  any  apparent  appen- 
dages.    This  tribe  is  composed  of  the  genus 

AcAEUs,  Lin. 
Most  of  these  animals  are  very  small  or  nearly  microscopical.  They  are 
observed  everywhere.  Some  of  them  are  errant,  and  of  these  some  are 
found  under  stones,  leaves,  bark  of  trees,  in  the  earth,  in  water,  di-ied  meat, 
old  cheese,  and  putrescent  animal  matters.  Others  are  parasitical,  living 
on  the  skin  or  in  the  flesh  of  various  animals,  which  they  often,  by  their 
excessive  multiplication,  reduce  to  a  state  of  great  debility.  The  origin 
of  certain  diseases,  such  as  the  itch,  is  attributed  to  particular  species.  The 
experiments  of  Dr  Galet  prove  that  if  the  Acari  of  the  human  psora  be 
placed  on  the  body  of  a  perfectly  healthy  person,  they  will  inoculate  him 
with  the  virus  of  that  disorder.  Various  species  of  Acari  are  also  found 
on  Insects,  and  some  of  the  Coleoptera  that  feed  on  cadaverous  substances 
are  fi-equently  covered  with  them.  They  have  even  been  observed  in  the 
brain  and  eye  of  Man. 

The  Acari,  or  Mites,  as  they  are  vulgarly  termed,  are  oviparous,  and  ex- 
cessively prolific.  Several  of  them  at  first  have  but  six  legs,  the  remaining 
two  being  developed  shortly  after.  Their  tarsi  terminate  in  various  ways, 
according  to  their  habits. 

Some — Acahides,  Lat. — or  the  Acari  proper,  have  eight  legs,  solely  des- 
tined for  walking,  and  chelicerae. 

Teombidittm,  Fab, 

The  chelicerae  monodactyle,  or  terminated  by  a  movable  hook;  salient 
palpi,  pointed  at  the  end,  with  a  movable  appendage  or  species  of  finger 
under  their  extremity,  two  eyes,  each  placed  on  a  little  immovable  pedicle. 
The  body  is  divided  into  two  parts,  the  first  of  which,  or  the  anterior,  is  very 
smal],  and  bears  the  two  first  pair  of  legs,  together  with  the  eyes  and  mouth. 

Tromh.  holosericeum,.  Fab.  Very  common  in  gardens  in  the  spring;  blood- 
red;  abdomen  nearly  square,  posteriorly  narrowed,  with  an  emargination; 
the  back  loaded  with  papills,  hairy  at  base,  and  globular  at  the  extremity. 

There  are  various  other  subgenera,  such  as  Eutter^us,  Gamascs,  Chet- 
lETus,  Oribata,  Uropoda,  8cc. 

Here  we  find  our  Common  Ticks.  The  most  remarkable  is  that  of  the 
subgenus 

Ixodes,  Lat.  Fab. 

The  palpi  forming  a  sheath  to  the  sucker,  and  with  it  constituting  a  pro- 
jecting and  short  rostrum,  truncated  and  slightly  dilated  at  the  extremity. 

The  Ixodes  are  found  in  thick  woods  abounding  in  brushes,  briars,  &c.; 
they  hook  themselves  to  low  plants  by  the  hind  legs,  keeping  the  others 
extended,  and  fasten  on  Dogs,  Oxen,  Horses  and  other  Quadrupeds,  and 
even  on  the  Tortoise,  burying  their  suckers  so  completely  in  their  flesh, 


340  ARACHNIDES. 

that  they  can  only  be  detached  by  force,  and  by  tearing'  out  the  portion  that 
adheres  to  it.  They  lay  a  prodigious  quantity  of  eggs,  and  sometimes  in- 
crease to  such  an  enormous  extent  on  the  Ox  and  Horse,  that  they  perish 
from  the  exhaustion.  Their  tarsi  are  terminated  by  two  hooks  inserted  in 
a  palette,  or  united  at  base  on  a  common  pedicle. 

The  ancients  designated  these  Arachnides  by  the  term  Ridnus.     They 
are  our  Ticks. 


CLASS  III. 
INSECTA. 

Insects,  which  form  the  third  class  of  articulated  animals  provided 
with  articulated  legs,  have,  besides,  a  dorsal  vessel  analogous  to  the 
vestige  of  a  heart,  but  totally  destitute  of  any  branch  for  the  circu- 
lation. They  respire  by  means  of  two  principal  tracheae,  extending, 
parallel  to  each  other,  throughout  the  whole  length  of  the  body,  hav- 
ing centres,  at  intervals,  from  which  proceed  numerous  branches, 
corresponding  to  external  openings  or  stigmata,  which  admit  air. 
They  all  have  two  antennae  and  a  distinct  head.  The  nervous  sys- 
tem of  most  Insects — the  Hexapoda— is  generally  composed  of  a 
brain  formed  of  two  opposing  ganglions,  united  at  base,  giving  off 
eight  pairs  of  nerves  and  two  single  ones,  and  of  twelve  ganglions, 
all  inferior.  By  counting  the  eight  pairs  of  the  brain,  and  the  ten 
spinal  bridles,  which  may  also  be  considered  as  so  many  pairs  of 
nerves,  we  shall  have  in  all  forty-five  pairs,  exclusive  of  two  solitary 
nerves,  or  from  twelve  to  fourteen  more  than  are  found  in  the  hu- 
man subject.  In  our  general  remarks  on  points  common  to  the 
three  classes  of  articulated  animals  provided  with  articulated  feet, 
we  mentioned  the  various  opinions  of  physiologists  with  respect  to 
the  seat  of  the  sense  of  hearing  and  of  smell.  We  will  merely  add, 
in  regard  to  the  former,  that  certain  little  nervous  frontal  ganglions 
seem  to  confirm  the  opinion  of  those  who,  like  Scarpa,  place  it  in 
the  origin  of  the  antennoe.  I  have  detected  two  small  orifices  near 
the  eyes  of  certain  Lepidoptera,  which,  perhaps,  are  auditory  canals. 
If,  in  several  Insects,  particularly  those  furnished  with  filiform,  or 


INSECTA,  341 

long,  setaceous  antennae,  they  (the  antennae)  are  organs  of  touch, 
it  seems  to  us  difficult  to  account  for  the  extraordinary  development 
they  acquire  in  certain  families,  and  more  particularly  in  the  males, 
if  we  refuse  to  admit  that  they  are  then  the  seat  of  smell.  The  palpi 
also,  in  some  cases,  as  when  they  are  greatly  dilated  at  the  extremity, 
may  possibly  be  the  principal  organs  of  smell,  part  of  which  sense 
may  also  perhaps  belong  to  the  ligula. 

The  digestive  system  consists  of  a  preparatory  or  buccal  appara- 
tus, intestinal  canal,  biliary  vessels,  hlsocaUed  hepatic  vessels^  those 
styled  salivary f  but  which  are  less  general,  free  and  floating  vessels, 
the  epiploon  or  corps  graisseux,  and  probably  of  the  dorsal  vessel. 
This  system  is  singularly  modified,  according  to  the  difference  of  the 
aliment,  or  forms  a  great  number  of  particular  types,  of  which  we 
shall  speak  when  treating  of  families.  We  will  merely  say  a  word 
with  respect  to  the  buccal  apparatus  and  the  principal  divisions  of 
the  intestinal  canal,  beginning  with  the  latter.  In  those  where  it  is 
the  most  complicated,  as  in  the  carnivorous  Coleoptera,  we  observe 
a  pharynx,  oesophagus,  crop,  gizzard,  stomach  or  chylific  ventricle, 
and  intestines. 

Some  few,  and  always  apterous  Insects,  such  as  the  Myriapoda, 
approximate  to  several  of  the  Crustacea,  either  in  the  number  of  the 
annuli  of  their  body  and  in  their  legs,  or  in  some  points  of  analogy 
in  the  conformation  of  the  parts  of  the  mouth;  but  all  the  others 
never  have  more  than  six  legs,  and  their  body,  the  number  of  whose 
segments  never  extends  beyond  twelve,  is  always  divided  into  three 
principal  parts,  the  head,  trunk  and  abdomen.  Among  the  latter 
Insects,  some  are  found  without  wings,  that  always  preserve  their 
natal  form,  and  merely  increase  in  size  and  change  their  skin.  In 
this  respect  they  bear  some  analogy  to  the  animals  of  the  preceding 
classes.  Nearly  all  the  remaining  Hexapoda  have  wings;  but  these 
organs,  and  even  frequently  the  feet,  do  not  make  their  appearance 
at  first,  but  are  only  developed  after  a  series  of  changes,  more  or 
less  remarkable,  styled  metamorphoses,  of  which  we  shall  soon 
have  to  speak. 

The  head  bears  the  antenna,  eyes,  and  mouth.  The  composition 
and  form  of  the  antennae  are  much  more  various  than  in  the  Crus- 
tacea, and  are  frequently  more  developed  or  longer  in  the  males  than 
in  the  females. 

The  eyes  are  either  compound  or  simple;  the  first,  according  to 


342  INSECTA. 

the  baron  Cuvier,  Marcel  do  Serres  and  others,  are  fornried:  1,  of 
a  cornea,  divided  into  numerous  little  facets,  which  is  so  much  the 
more  convex,  as  the  insect  is  more  carnivorous;  its  internal  surface 
is  covered  with  an  opaque,  and  variously  coloured,  but  slightly  fluid 
substance,  usually,  however,  of  a  black  or  deep  violet  hue;  2,  of  a 
choroideSj  fixed  by  its  contour  and  edges  to  the  cornea,  covered 
with  a  black  varnish,  exhibiting  numerous  air  vessels,  arising  from 
tolerably  large  trunks  of  tracheae  in  the  head,  whose  branches  form 
a  circular  trachea  round  the  eye:  it  is  frequently  wanting,  how- 
ever, as  well  as  the  choroides,  in  various  nocturnal  insects;  3,  of 
nerves  arising  from  a  large  trunk,  proceeding  directly  from  the 
brain,  which  then  opens,  forming  a  reversed  cone,  the  bas^  of  which 
is  next  to  the  eye,  and  each  of  whose  rays  or  threads  traversing  the 
choroides  and  lining  matter  of  the  cornea,  terminates  in  one  of  its 
facets;  there  is  no  crystalline  nor  vitreous  humour. 

Several,  besides  these  compound  eyes,  have  simple  ones,  or  ocelli, 
the  cornea  of  which  is  smooth.  They  are  usually  three  in  number, 
and  are  disposed  in  a  triangle  on  the  top  of  the  head.  In  most  of 
the  Aptera  and  in  the  larvae  of  those  that  are  winged,  they  replace 
the  former,  and  are  frequently  united  in  a  group;  those  of  the 
Arachnides  seem  to  indicate  that  they  are  fitted  for  the  purpose  of 
vision. 

The  mouth  of  the  hexapodous  insects  is  generally  composed  of 
six  principal  parts,  four  of  which  are  lateral,  are  disposed  in  pairs, 
and  move  transversely;  the  other  two,  opposed  to  each  other  in  a 
contrary  direction,  occupy  the  space  comprised  between  the  former: 
one  is  placed  above  the  superior  pair,  and  the  other  beneath  the 
inferior.  In  the  triturating  insects  (broyeurs),  or  those  which  feed 
on  solid  matters,  the  four  lateral  parts  perform  the  office  of  jaws, 
the  other  two  being  considered  as  lips;  but,  as  we  have  already  ob- 
served, the  two  superior  jaws  have  been  distinguished  by  the  pecu- 
liar appellation  of  mandibles,  the  others  alone  bearing  that  of  maxilla; 
X)r  jaws;  the  latter  are  also  furnished  with  one  or  two  articulated 
filaments  called  falpi^  a  character  never  exhibited,  in  this  class,  by 
the  mandibles.  Their  extremity  is  often  terminated  by  two  divisions 
or  lobes,  the  exterior  of  which,  in  the  Orthoptera,  is  called  the 
galea.  We  have  already  said  that  the  upper  lip  was  called  the 
labrum.     Tlie  other,  or  the  labium  properly  so  styled,  is  formed  of 


INSECTA.  343 

two  parts;  the  one,  inferior  and  solid,  is  the  mentum  or  chin;  the 
other,  which  is  usually  provided  with  two  palpi,  is  the  ligula. 

In  the  Suctoria,  or  those  that  live  by  the  suction  of  fluid  aliment, 
these  various  organs  of  manducation  present  themselves  under  two 
kinds  of  general  modifications.  In  the  first,  the  mandibles  and  the 
jaws  are  replaced  by  little  laminas  in  the  form  of  setas  or  lancets, 
forming,  by  their  union,  a  sort  of  sucker,  which  is  received  into  a 
sheath,  supplying  the  place  of  a  labium,  and  is  either  cylindrical  or 
conical,  and  articulated  in  the  form  of  a  rostrum,  or  flesliy  or  mem- 
branous, inarticulated,  and  terminated  by  two  lips  constituting  a 
proboscis.  The  labrum  is  triangular  and  arched,  and  covers  the 
base  of  the  sucker. 

In  the  second  modification,  the  labrum  and  mandibles  are  nearly 
obliterated,  or  are  extremely  small:  the  labium  is  no  longer  free, 
and  is  only  distinguishable  by  the  presence  of  two  palpi,  to  which 
it  gives  insertion:  the  jaws  have  acquired  a  most  extraordinary 
length,  and  are  transformed  into  tubular  filaments,  which,  being 
united  at  their  edges,  compose  a  sort  of  spiral  proboscis  called  the 
tongue,  but  which,  to  avoid  all  equivocation,  it  would  be  better  to 
call  spirignatha;  its  interior  exhibits  three  canals,  the  intermediate 
of  which  is  the  duct  of  the  alimentary  juices.  At  the  base  of  each 
of  these  filaments  is  a  palpus,  usually  very  small,  and  but  slightly 
apparent. 

The  Myriapoda  are  the  only  insects  in  which  the  mouth  presents 
another  mode  of  organization — -it  will  be  explained  in  treating  of 
that  order. 

The  trunk  of  insects,  or  that  intermediate  portion  of  their  body 
which  bears  the  legs,  is  generally  designated  by  the  term  thorax,  or 
corselet  by  the  French,  It  is  composed  of  three  segments,  not  well 
distinguished  at  first,  the  relative  proportions  of  which  vary  consi- 
derably. Sometimes,  as  in  the  Coleoptera,  the  anterior,  much  the 
largest,  separated  from  the  following  one  by  an  articulation,  mova- 
ble, and  alone  exposed,  appears  at  the  first  glance  to  constitute  the 
entire  trunk,  and  is  called  the  thorax  or  corselet;  sometimes,  as  in 
the  Hymenoptera,  Lepidoptera,  &c.,  it  is  much  shorter  than  the 
ensuing  one,  has  the  appearance  of  a  collar,  and,  with  the  two 
others,  forms  a  common  body,  attached  to  the  abdomen  by  a  pedi- 
cle, or  adhering  closely  to  it  across  its  whole  posterior  width,  and 
is  also  called  thorax.     These  distinctions  were  insufficient,  and  M. 


344  INSECTA. 

Kirby  having  already  employed  the  denomination  of  metathorax, 
to  designate  the  after-thorax,  that  ofprothorax  and  mesothorax^ihe 
ternary  division  once  established,  naturally  presented  itself  to  the 
mind,  and  the  celebrated  professor  Nitzsch  was  the  firsf  to  employ 
it.  Some  naturalists  have  since  designated  the  prothorax  or  ante- 
rior segment,  that  which  bears  the  two  first  feet,  by  the  term  collar, 
collare.  Wishing  to  retain  the  denomination  of  corselet^  but  to 
restrain  its  application  within  proper  limits,  we  will  employ  that 
term  in  all  those  cases  where  this  segment  is  much  larger  than  the 
others,  and  where  these  latter  are  joined  to  the  abdomen,  and  seem 
to  constitute  an  integral  part  of  it — a  disposition  proper  to  the 
Coleoptera,  Orthoptera,  and  several  of  the  Hemiptera.  When 
the  prothorax  is  short,  and  forms  with  the  succeeding  segments  a 
common  and  exposed  mass,  the  trunk  composed  of  the  three  will 
retain  the  name  of  thorax.  We  will  also  continue  to  style  pectus 
the  inferior  surface  of  the  trunk,  dividing  it  according  to  the  seg- 
ments, into  three  arese,  the  ante-pectus,  medio-pectus,  and  post-pec- 
ius.  The  median  line  will  also  constitute  the  sternum,  which  we 
divide  into  three  parts:  the  ante-sternum,  medio-sternum,  and  post- 
sternum. 

The  teguments  of  the  thoracic  segments,  as  well  as  of  those  of 
the  abdomen,  are  usually  divided  into  two  annuli  or  semi-annuli,  the 
one  dorsal  or  superior,  the  other  inferior,  laterally  united  by  a  soft 
and  flexible  membrane,  which,  however,  is  but  a  portion  of  the  same 
tegument  that  in  many  Insects,  the  Coleoptera  particularly,  is  less 
firm.  At  the  point  of  junction  between  these  annuli  we  observe  a 
little  space  of  a  more  solid  texture,  or  of  the  consistence  of  the  an- 
nvilus  itself,  which  bears  a  stigmata,  so  that  the  sides  of  the  abdomen 
present  a  longitudinal  series  of  small  pieces,  or  each  segment  seems 
to  be  quadripartite.  Other  equally  corneous  pieces  occupy  the  in- 
ferior sides  of  the  mesothorax  and  metathorax  and  immediately  un- 
der the  origin  of  the  elytra  and  wings,  which  are  supported  by 
another  longitudinal  piece.  The  relations  of  these  parts,  the  size 
and  form  of  the  first  joint  of  the  coxae,  the  manner  in  which  they 
are  articulated  with  the  semi-annulus  to  which  they  belong,  the  ex- 
tent and  direction  of  that  semi-annulus  varying,  furnish  the  thorax, 
thus  considered,  with  a  combination  of  characters,  which  in  a  sys- 
tematic point  of  view  are  of  great  importance. 

As  Insects  inhabit  all  kinds  of  dwellings,  they  are  provided  with 


INSECTA.  345 

all  sorts  of  locomotive  organs,  tvings  and/eef,  which,  in  several,  act 
as^n*. 

The  wings  are  membranous,  dry,  elastic  organs,  usually  diapha- 
nous, and  attached  to  the  sides  of  the  back  of  the  thorax:  the  first, 
when  there  are  four,  or  when  they  are  unique,  on  those  of  its  second 
segment,  and  the  second  on  those  of  the  following  or  of  the  meta- 
thorax.  They  are  composed  of  two  membranes  laid  one  on  the 
other,  and  are  traversed  in  various  directions  by  more  or  less  nu- 
merous nervures,  which  are  so  many  traclieal  tubes,  now  forming  a 
net-work,  and  then  simple  veins.  The  Libellulas,  Apes,  Vespa?, 
Papiliones,  «fcc.,  have  four  wings;  but  those  of  the  latter  are  co- 
vered with  small  scales,  which  at  the  first  glance  resemble  dust,  and 
give  them  the  magnificent  colours  in  which  they  are  dressed.  They 
are  easily  removed  with  the  finger,  and  that  portion  of  the  wing  be- 
comes transparent.  By  the  aid  of  glasses  we  discover  that  these 
scales  are  of  various  figures,  and  implanted  in  the  wing  by  means  of 
a  pedicle,  arranged  gradually  and  in  series,  like  tiles  on  a  roof. 
Before  the  superior  wings  of  these  Insects  are  two  species  of  epau- 
lettes— pterygoda — which  extend  posteriorly  along  a  portion  of  the 
back  on  which  they  are  laid.  The  wings  of  some  Insects  remain 
straight,  or  are  doubled  transversely.  Those  of  others  are  folded 
or  plaited  longitudinally  like  a  fan.  Sometimes  they  are  horizontal, 
and  sometimes  inclined  in  the  manner  of  a  roof;  in  several  they  cross 
on  the  back,  and  in  others  they  are  distant.  Directly  under  them, 
in  the  Diptera,  are  two  small  movable  threads  with  a  claviform  ter- 
mination, which,  according  to  the  general  opinion,  seem  to  replace 
the  two  wings  that  are  wanting.  They  are  called  halteres.  Other 
two-winged  and  more  extraordinary  Insects  have  also  two  halteres, 
but  situated  at  the  anterior  extremity  of  the  thorax,  which  to  distin- 
guish from  the  others  we  will  call  prohalteres.  Above  these  ap- 
pendages is  a  little  membranous  scale  formed  of  two  pieces  united 
by  one  of  their  edges  and  resembling  a  bivalve  shell — it  is  the  alula 
or  cueilleron.  The  same  appendage  is  also  observed  under  the  ely- 
tra (at  their  base)  of  some  aquatic  Coleoptera. 

Many  Insects,  such  as  the  Melolonthae,  Cantharides,  &c.,  in  lieu 
of  the  two  superior  or  anterior  wings,  are  furnished  with  two  species 
of  scales,  more  or  less  solid  and  opaque,  which  open  and  close,  and 
beneath  which.,  when  at  rest,  the  wings  are  transversely  folded. 
These  scales  or  wing  cases  are  called  elytra.     The  Insects  provided 

2  T 


346  INSECTA. 

with  them  are  named  Coleoptera,  and  in  such  they  are  never  absent, 
though  this  is  sometimes  the  case  with  respect  to  the  wings.  In 
other  Insects  the  extremity  of  the  scale  is  completely  membranous, 
or  like  the  wing:  they  are  styled  Hemipfera. 

The  scutel  or  scutellum  is  usually  a  small  triangular  piece,  situa- 
ted on  the  back  of  the  mesothorax,  and  between  the  insertions  of 
the  elytra  or  of  the  wings.  Sometimes  it  is  very  large,  and  then  it 
covers  the  greater  part  of  the  superior  portion  of  the  abdomen.  In 
various  Hymenoptera,  behind  the  scutellum  and  on  the  metathorax, 
we  find  a  little  space  called  the  post-scutellum. 

The  ambulatory  organs  of  locomotion  consist  of  a  coxa  formed  of 
two  pieces,  a.  femur,  an  uniarticulated  tibia,  and  of  a  tarsus,  which 
is  divided  into  several  phalanges.  The  number  of  its  articulations 
varies  from  three  to  five,  a  difference  which  greatly  depends  upon 
the  proportional  changes  experienced  by  the  first  and  penultimate 
joints.  Although  their  supputation  may  sometimes  prove  embar- 
rassing, and  this  numerical  series  may  not  always  be  in  exact  accord- 
ance with  the  natural  order,  it  furnishes  a  good  character  for  the 
distinction  of  genera.  The  last  joint  is  usually  terminated  by  two 
hooks.  The  form  of  the  tarsi  is  subject  to  some  modifications,  ac- 
cording to  the  habits  of  the  animal.  Those  of  aquatic  species  are 
usually  strongly  ciliated  and  flattened,  and  resemble  oars. 

The  abdomen,  which  forms  the  third  and  last  part  of  the  body,  is 
confounded  in  the  Myriapoda,  with  the  thorax:  but  in  all  other  In- 
sects, or  those  which  have  but  six  feet,  it  is  distinct.  It  contains 
the  viscera,  &c.,  presenting  nine  or  ten  segments  or  annuli,  some 
of  which,  however,  are  frequently  concealed  or  considerably  reduced. 
The  last  annuli  of  the  abdomen,  in  several  females,  form  a  retrac- 
tile or  always  projecting  ovipositor  more  or  less  complicated,  which 
acts  like  an  auger.  A  sting  is  substituted  for  it  in  many  of  the  fe- 
male Hymenoptera.  The  female  lays  her  eggs,  and  deposits  them 
in  the  way  best  adapted  for  their  preservation,  and  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  moment  the  larvee  make  their  appearance,  suitable  aliment 
is  always  within  their  reach.  Frequently  she  collects  provisions  for 
them.  This  maternal  solicitude  often  excites  our  surprise,  and  more 
particularly  unveils  the  instinct  of  Insects.  In  the  numerous  socie- 
ties of  several  of  these  animals,  such  as  the  Ant,  Termes,  Wasp, 
Bee,  &c.,  those  individuals  which  form  the  greater  portion  of  the 
community,  and  by  whose  labour  and  vigilance  the  whole  commu- 


INSECT A.  347 

nity  are  maintained,  have  been  considered  as  being  of  neither  sex. 
They  have  also  been  designated  by  the  terms  of  labourers  and  mules. 
It  is  now  known,  however,  that  they  are  females  not  fully  developed. 

The  ova  are  sometimes  hatched  in  the  abdomen  of  the  mother; 
she  is  then  viviparous.  The  number  of  generations  in  a  year  de- 
pends on  the  duration  of  each  of  them.  Most  commonly  there  is 
but  one  or  two. 

A  female  Papilio,  or  Butterfly,  lays  her  eggs,  from  which  are 
hatched,  not  Butterflies,  but  animals  with  an  elongated  body,  divided 
into  rings,  and  a  head  furnished  with  jaws  and  several  small  eyes, 
having  very  short  feet,  six  of  which  are  anterior,  scaly,  and  pointed, 
the  rest  varying  in  number  and  membranous,  being  attached  to  the 
posterior  annuli.  These  animals,  called  Caterpillars,  live  in  this 
state  for  a  certain  period,  and  repeatedly  change  their  skin.  An 
epoch,  however.,  arrives,  when  from  this  skin  of  a  caterpillar  issues 
a  totally  different  being,  of  an  oblong  form  and  without  distinct 
limbs,  which  soon  ceases  to  move,  and  remains  a  long  time  appa- 
rently desiccated  and  dead  under  the  name  of  a  chrysalis.  By 
close  examination  we  may  discover  on  the  external  surface  of  this 
chrysalis,  lineaments  which  represent  all  the  parts  of  the  Butterfly, 
but  under  proportions  differing  from  those  they  are  one  day  to  pos- 
sess. After  a  longer  or  shorter  period,  the  skin  of  the  chrysalis 
splits,  and  the  Butterfly,  humid  and  soft,  with  flabby  short  wings, 
issues  from  it — a  kw  moments,  however,  and  it  is  dry,  the  wings 
enlarge  and  become  firm,  and  the  perfect  animal  is  ready  for  flight. 
It  has  six  long  legs,  antennas,  a  spiral  proboscis,  and  compound 
eyes — in  a  word,  it  has  no  resemblance  whatever  to  the  caterpillar, 
from  whicli  it  has  originated,  for  it  is  ascertained  that  these  various 
changes  are  nothing  more  than  the  successive  development  of  parts 
contained  one  within  the  other. 

This  is  what  is  styled  the  metamorphosis  of  Insects.  In  their  first 
condition  they  are  called  larvas,  in  their  second  pupce,  nymphs  or 
chrysalides,  and  in  the  third  perfect  insects. 

All  Insects  do  not  pass  through  these  three  states.  Those  which 
are  apterous  issue  from  the  ovum  with  the  form  they  are  always  to 
preserve:  they  are  said  to  be  without  a  metamorphosis.  Of  those 
that  have  wings,  many  experience  no  other  change  than  that  of  re- 
ceiving them;  these  are  said  to  undergo  a  semi-metamorphosis. 
Their  larva  resembles  the  perfect  insect,  with  the  single  exception 


348  INSECTA. 

of  llie  wings,  which  are  totally  wanting.  The  nymph  only  differs 
from  the  larva  in  possessing  stumps  or  rudiments  of  wings,  which 
are  developed  at  its  final  change  of  tegument,  and  vender  the  animal 
perfect.  Such  are  the  Cimices,  Grylii,  &.c.  Finally,  the  remain- 
ing Insects  provided  with  wings  that  are  said  to  undergo  a  complete 
metamorphosis,  are  at  first  larvce,  resembling  caterpillars  or  Worms, 
and  then  become  motionless  nymphs,  but  presenting  in  that  state  all 
the  parts  of  the  perfect  insect  contracted,  and  as  if  WTappod  in  a 
bandage. 

In  the  nymph  of  the  Coleoptera,  Neuroptera,  Hymenoptera,  &c., 
these  parts,  though  closely  approximated  and  in  contact  with  the 
body,  are  free;  but  they  are  not  so  in  that  of  the  Lepidoptera  and  of 
many  Diptera,  An  elastic  or  solid  skin  is  moulded  over  the  body 
and  its  external  parts,  forming  a  kind  of  case  for  it. 

That  of  the  chrysalides  of  the  Lepidoptera  merely  consisting  of  a 
simple  pellicle  applied  to  the  external  organs,  following  their  con- 
tour in  every  direction,  and  forming,  for  each  of  them,  so  many 
moulds,  like  the  envelope  of  a  mummy,  allows  us  to  recognize  and 
distinguisii  tliem;  but  those  of  Flies  and  Syrphi,  formed  of  the  dried 
skin  of  the  larva,  resemble  an  egg-like  shell.  It  is  a  species  of  cap- 
sule or  case  in  which  the  animal  is  shut  up. 

Many  larvaj,  before  they  pass  into  their  pupa  state,  prepare  a  co- 
coon in  which  they  enclose  themselves,  either  with  silk  which  they 
draw  from  the  interior  of  their  bodies  by  means  of  the  spinning  ap- 
paratus of  their  lip,  or  other  materials  which  they  collect.  The 
perfect  Insect  issues  from  the  nymph  through  a  fissure  or  slit  which 
opens  on  the  back  of  the  thorax.  In  the  pupas  of  Flies  one  of  tiie 
extremities  is  detached,  like  a  cap,  to  allow  the  egress  of  the 
animal. 

Tl)e  larvfc  and  pupae  of  those  Insects  which  experience  a  semi- 
metamorphosis  only  differ  from  the  same  in  a  perfect  state,  in  the 
absence  of  wings.  The  other  external  organs  are  precisely  alike. 
But  in  such  as  undergo  a  complete  metamorphosis,  the  form  of  the 
body  of  the  larva  has  no  constant  relation  with  that  it  is  to  possess 
in  its  perfect  state.  It  is  usually  more  elongated;  the  head  is  fre- 
quently very  different,  as  well  in  its  consistence  as  in  its  figure,  hav- 
ing mere  rudiments  of  antennae  or  perhaps  none  at  all;  there  are 
never  any  compound  eyes. 

There  is  also  a  great  disparity  in  the  organs  of  manducation,  as 


INSECTA.  349 

may  be  easily  seen  by  comparing  the  mouth  of  a  caterpillar  with 
that  of  the  Butterfly,  or  the  mouth  of  the  larva  of  a  Fly  with  that  of 
the  perfect  Insect. 

Several  of  these  larv^  are  destitute  of  feet;  others,  such  as  the 
Caterpillars,  have  many,  all,  the  six  first  excepted,  membranous, 
and  without  terminal  hooks.  Some  Insects,  such  as  the  Ephemerae, 
exhibit  a  singular  anomaly  in  their  metamorphosis — the  animal  ar- 
rived at  its  perfect  state  undergoes  another  change  of  tegument. 

The  Insects  which  constitute  our  three  first  orders  preserve  for 
life  their  natal  form.  The  Myriapoda,  however,  exhibit  a  kind  of 
metamorphosis.  At  first  they  have  but  six  legs,  or,  according  to 
Savi,  are  altogether  destitute  of  them;  the  others,  as  well  as  the 
segments  on  which  they  depend,  are  developed  by  age. 

But  few  vegetable  substances  are  protected  from  the  voracity  of 
Insects;  and  as  those  which  are  necessary  or  useful  to  Man  are  not 
spared  by  them  more  than  others,  they  become  very  injurious,  par- 
ticularly during  seasons  which  favour  their  multiplication.  Their 
destruction  greatly  depends  upon  our  vigilance  and  knowledge  of 
their  habits.  Some  of  tliem  are  omnivorous — such  are  the  Termites, 
Ants,  &c.,  whose  ravages  are  but  too  well  known.  Several  of  those 
which  are  carnivorous,  and  all  the  species  which  feed  on  dead  ani- 
mal matters,  &c.,  are  a  benefit  conferred  on  us  by  the  Author  of 
Nature,  and  somewhat  compensate  for  the  inconvenience  and  injury 
we  experience  from  the  others.  Some  are  employed  in  medicine, 
the  arts,  and  our  domestic  economy. 

They  have  numerous  enemies:  Fishes  destroy  many  of  the  aquatic 
species;  Birds,  Bats,  Lizards,  &.C.,  deliver  us  from  a  part  of  those 
which  inhabit  the  air  or  earth.  Most  of  them  endeavour  to  escape 
by  flight  or  running  from  the  dangers  that  surround  them,  but  some 
have  recourse  to  stratagem  or  arms. 

Having  undergone  their  ultimate  transformation,  and  being  pos- 
sessed of  all  their  faculties,  they  continue  their  species: — this  aim 
once  accomplished,  they  soon  cease  to  exist.  Thus,  each  of  the 
three  finer  seasons  of  the  year  produces  species  peculiar  to  it.  The 
females  and  males  of  those  which  live  in  societies,  however,  enjoy 
a  longer  term  of  life.  Individuals  hatched  in  autumn  shelter  them- 
selves from  the  rigours  of  winter,  and  reappear  in  spring. 

The  species,  like  those  of  plants,  are  circumscribed  within  geo- 
graphical limits.     Those  of  the  western  continent  for  instance,  a 


350  INSECTA. 

very  few,  and  all  from  the  North,  excepted,  are  strictly  peculiar  to 
itj  such  also  is  the  case  with  several  genera.  The  eastern  conti- 
nent, in  turn,  possesses  others  which  are  unknown  in  the  western- 
The  Insects  of  the  south  of  Europe  and  north  of  Africa,  and  of  the 
western  and  southern  countries  of  Asia,  have  a  strong  mutual  re- 
semblance. The  same  may  be  said  of  those  which  inhabit  the 
Moluccas,  and  more  eastern  islands,  those  of  the  Southern  Ocean 
included.  Several  northern  species  are  found  in  the  mountains  of 
southern  countries.  Those  of  Africa  differ  greatly  from  the  oppo- 
site portions  of  America.  The  Insects  of  Southern  Asia,  from  the 
Indies  on  the  Sind  eastward,  to  the  confines  of  China,  are  very 
much  alike.  The  intertropical  regions,  covered  with  immense  and 
well  watered  forests,  are  the  richest  in  Insects  of  any  on  the  globe; 
Brazil  and  Guiana  are  particularly  so. 

All  general  systems  or  methods  relative  to  Insects  are  reduced 
essentially  to  three.  Swammerdam  based  his  on  their  metamor- 
phoses; that  of  Linnaeus  was  founded  on  the  presence  or  absence  of 
wings,  their  number,  consistence,  superposition,  the  nature  of  their 
surface,  and  on  the  deficiency  or  presence  of  a  sting.  Fabricius 
had  recourse  to  the  parts  of  the  mouth  alone.  In  all  these  arrange- 
ments the  Crustacea  and  Arachnides  are  placed  among  the  Insects, 
and  in  that  of  Linnaeus,  the  one  generally  adopted,  they  are  even  the 
last. 

I  divide  this  class  into  twelve  orders:  the  three  first  of  which  are 
composed  of  apterous  Insects,  undergoing  no  essential  change  of 
form  or  habits,  merely  subject  to  simple  changes  of  tegument,  or 
to  a  kind  of  a  metamorphosis,  which  increases  the  number  of  legs, 
and  that  of  the  annuli  of  the  body.  The  organ  of  sight  in  these 
animals  is  usually  a  mere  (more  or  less  considerable)  assemblage 
of  ocelli  resembling  granules. 

Certain  English  naturalists  have  formed  new  orders,  based  upon 
the  wings;  I  see  no  necessity,  however,  for  admitting  them,  that  of 
the  Strepsiptera  excepted,  the  name  of  which  appears  to  me  to  be 
erroneous(l),  and  which  I  will  call  Rhipiptera(2). 

In  the  first  order  or  the  Myriapoda,  there  are  more  than  six  feet 
— twenty-four  and  upwards — arranged  along  the  whole  length  of 
the  body,  on  a  suite  of  annuli,  each  of  which  bears  one  or  two  pairs, 


( 1 )  Twisted  wings.    The  pai-ts  taken  for  elytra  are  not  so.    See  this  order. 

(2)  Wings  folded  like  a  fan. 


INSECTA.  351 

and  of  which  the  first,  and  in  several  even  the  second,  seem  to  form 
a  part  of  the  mouth.     They  are  apterous(  1). 

In  the  second  or  the  Thysanottra,  there  are  six  legs,  and  the 
abdomen  is  furnished  on  its  sides  with  movable  parts,  in  the  form 
of  false  feet,  or  terminated  by  appendages  fitted  for  leaping. 

In  the  third  or  the  Parasita,  we  find  six  legs,  no  wings,  and  no 
other  organs  of  sight  than  ocelli;  the  mouth,  in  a  great  measure,  is 
internal,  and  consists  of  a  snout  containing  a  retractile  sucker,  or  in 
a  slit  between  two  lips,  with  two  hooked  mandibles. 

In  the  fourth  or  the  Suctoria,  there  are  six  legs,  but  no  wings; 
the  mouth  is  composed  of  a  sucker  inclosed  in  a  cylindrical  sheath, 
formed  of  two  articulated  portions. 

In  the  fifth  or  the  Coleoptera,  there  are  six  legs,  and  four  wings, 
the  two  superior  of  which  have  the  form  of  cases,  and  mandibles  and 
maxillae  for  mastication:  the  ioferior  wings  are  simply  folded  cross- 
wise, and  the  cases,  always  horizontal,  are  crustaceous.  They  ex- 
perience a  complete  metamorphosis. 

In  the  sixth  or  the  Orthoptera,  there  are  six  legs;  four  wings, 
the  two  superior  in  the  form  of  cases,  and  mandibles  and  jaws  for 
mastication,  covered  at  the  extremity  by  a  galea;  the  inferior  wings 
are  folded  in  two  directions,  or  simply  in  their  length,  and  the  inner 
margins  of  the  cases,  usually  coriaceous,  are  crossed.  They  only 
experience  a  semi-metamorphosis. 

In  the  seventh  or  the  Hemiptera,  there  are  six  legs  and  four 
wings,  the  two  superior  in  the  form  of  crustaceous  cases,  with  mem- 
branous extremities,  or  similar  to  the  inferior,  but  larger  and  firmer; 
the  mandibles  and  jaws  are  replaced  by  setae  forming  a  sucker,  en- 
closed in  a  sheath  composed  of  one  articulated,  cylindrical  or 
conical  piece,  in  the  form  of  a  rostrum. 

In  the  eighth  or  the  Neuroptera,  there  are  six  legs,  four  mem- 
branous and  naked  wings,  and  mandibles  and  jaws  for  mastication; 
the  wings  are  finely  reticulated,  and  the  inferior  are  usually  as  large 
as  the  superior,  or  more  extended  in  one  of  their  diameters. 

In  the  ninth  or  the  Hyhenoptera,  there  are  six  feet,  and  four 
membranous  and  naked  wings,  and  mandibles  and  jaws  for  mastica- 
tion; the  inferior  wings  are  smaller  than  the  others,  and  the  abdo- 
men of  the  female  is  almost  always  terminated  by  a  terebra  or  sting. 


(1)  Destitute  of  wings  and  scutellum. 


352  INSECTA. 

In  the  tenth  or  the  Lepidoptera,  there  are  six  legs,  four  mem- 
branous wings,  covered  with  small  coloured  scales  resembling  dust; 
a  horny  production  in  the  form  of  an  epaulette,  and  directed  back- 
wards, is  inserted  before  each  upper  wing,  and  the  jaws  are  replaced 
by  two  united  tubular  filaments,  forming  a  kind  of  spirally  convo- 
luted tongue. 

In  the  eleventh  or  the  Riiipiptera,  there  are  six  legs,  two. 
membranous  wings  folded  like  a  fan,  and  two  crustaceous  movable 
bodies,  resembling  little  elytra,  situated  at  the  anterior  extremity  of 
the  thorax;  the  organs  of  manducation  are  simple,  setaceous  jaws, 
with  two  palpi. 

In  the  twelfth  or  the  Diptera,  there  are  six  legs,  two  membra- 
nous extended  wings,  accompanied,  in  most  of  them,  by  two  movable 
bodies  or  halteres,  placed  behind  them;  the  organs  of  manducation 
are  a  sucker  composed  of  a  variable  number  of  setas  inclosed  in  an 
inarticulated  sheath,  most  frequently  in  the  form  of  a  proboscis  ter- 
minated by  two  lips. 


ORDER  I. 
MYRIAPODA. 

The  Myriapoda  commonly  called  Centipedes^are  the  only  animals 
of  this  class  which  have  more  than  six  feet  in  their  perfect  state^and 
whose  abdomen  is  not  distinct  from,  the  trunk.  Their  body,  desti- 
tute of  wings,  is  composed  of  a  (usually)  numerous  suite  of  annuli, 
most  commonly  equal,  each  of  which,  a  few  of  the  first  excepted, 
bears  two  pairs  of  feet  mostly  terminated  by  a  single  hook;  these 
annuli  are  either  entire  or  divided  into  two  demi-segments,  each 
bearing  a  pair  of  those  organs,  and  one  of  them  only  exhibiting  two 
stigmata. 

The  Myriapoda  in  general  resemble  little  Serpents  or  Nereides, 
their  feet  being  closely  approximated  to  each  other  throughout  the 
whole  extent  of  the  body.  The  form  of  these  organs  even  extends 
to  the  parts  of  the  mouth.  The  mandibles  are  bi-articulated  and 
immediately  followed  by  a  quadrifid  piece  in  the  form  of  a  lip  with 
articulated  divisions,  resembling  little  feet,  which,  from  its  position, 


MYRIAPODA.  353 

corresponds  to  the  ligula  of  the  Crustacea;  next  come  two  pairs  of 
little  feel,  the  second  of  which,  in  several,  resemble  large  hooks, 
that  appear  to  replace  the  four  jaws  of  the  last  mentioned  animals, 
or  the  two  jaws  as  well  as  the  lower  lip  of  Insects:  they  are  a  sort 
of  buccal  feet.  The  antennas,  two  in  number,  are  short,  somewhat 
thicker  towards  the  extremity,  or  nearly  filiform  and  composed  of 
seven  joints  in  some;  in  others  they  are  numerous  and  setaceous. 
Their  visual  organs  are  usually  composed  of  a  union  of  ocelli,  and 
if  in  others  they  present  a  cornea  with  facets,  the  lenses  are  still 
larger,  rounded,  and  more  distinct,  in  proportion,  than  those  of  the 
eyes  of  Insects.  The  stigmata  are  frequently  very  small,  and  their 
number,  owing  to  that  of  the  annuli,  is  usually  greater  than  in  the 
latter,  where  it  never  exceeds  eighteen  or  twenty.  The  number  of 
these  annuli  and  that  of  the  feet  increase  with  age,  a  character 
which  also  distinguishes  the  Myriapoda  from  Insects,  the  latter  ab 
ovo  always  having  the  number  of  segments  peculiar  to  them,  and  all 
their  legs  with  hooks,  or  true  legs,  being  developed  at  once,  either 
at  the  same  epoch  or  when  they  pass  into  their  pupa  state.  The 
Myriapoda  live  and  increase  in  size  longer  than  other  Insects. 

From  this  ensemble  of  facts,  we  may  conclude,  that  these  animals 
approach  the  Crustacea  and  Arachnides  on  the  one  hand,  and  the 
Insects  on  the  other;  but  that  as  respects  the  presence,  form  and  di- 
rection of  the  branchiaB,  they  belong  to  the  latter. 

We  divide  them  into  two  families,  perfectly  distinct  both  in  their 
organization  and  habits,  and  forming  two  genera  according  to  the 
system  of  Linnasus. 


FAMILY  I. 

CHILOGNATHA. 

The  body  generally  crustaceous  and  frequently  cylindrical;  the 
antennae  somewhat  thicker  near  the  end  or  nearly  equal,  and  com- 
posed of  seven  joints;  the  two  thick  mandibles  without  palpi,  very 
distinctly  divided  into  two  portions  by  a  median  articulation  with  im- 
bricated teeth,  implanted  in  a  cavity  of  its  superior  extremity;  a 
species  of  lip — ligula — situated  immediately  above,  that  covers  them, 
is  crustaceous,  plane,  and  divided  on  its  exterior  surface  by  longitu- 
2  U 


354  INSECTA. 

dinal  sutures  and  emarginations  into  four  principal  arese,  tubercu- 
lated  on  their  superior  margin,  the  two  intermediate  of  which, 
narrower  and  shorter,  are  placed  at  the  superior  extremity  of  another 
area,  serving  as  a  common  base:  the  feet  very  short,  and  always  ter- 
minated by  a  single  hook. 

The  Chilognatha  move  very  slowly,  or  slide  along,  as  it  were,  and 
roll  themselves  spirally  or  into  a  ball.  The  first  segment  of  the 
body,  and  in  some  the  following  one,  is  the  largest,  and  has  the  form 
of  a  corselet  or  little  shield.  It  is  only  at  the  fourth,  in  some,  and 
at  the  fifth  or  sixth  in  others,  that  the  diiplication  of  the  feet  com- 
mences; the  first  two  or  four  feet  are  even  entirely  free  to  their  ori- 
gin, where  they  merely  adhere  to  their  respective  segments  by  a 
median  or  sternal  line.  The  last  two  or  three  rings  are  without 
feet.  A  series  of  pores  is  observed  on  each  side  of  the  body,  which 
were  considered  as  stigmata,  but,  according  toSavi,they  are  simply 
designed  to  afford  a  passage  to  an  acid  fluid  of  an  extremely  disa- 
greeable odour,  which  appears  to  serve  as  a  means  of  defence;  the 
respiratory  apertures,  for  whose  discovery  we  are  indebted  to  him, 
are  situated  on  the  sternal  part  of  each  segment,  and  communicate 
internally  with  a  double  series  of  pneumatic  sacs  strung  together 
like  a  rosary,  extending  along  the  body,  from  which  proceed  tracheal 
branches  that  ramify  over  the  other  organs.  According  to  an  ob- 
servation of  Straus,  the  sacs  or  vesicular  trachese  are  not,  as  usual, 
connected  with  each  other  by  a  principal  trachea. 

These  Insects  feed  on  dead  and  decomposed  animal  and  vegetable 
matters;  they  deposit  in  the  ground  a  large  number  of  eggs.  Ac- 
cording to  the  system  of  Linnaeus  they  form  but  one  genus,  that  of 

luLus,  Lin. 
Some  have  a  crustaceous  body  without  terminal  appendages,  and  antennx 
enlarged  near  the  end. 

Glomeris,  Lat. 
Resembling  Onisci;  oval,  and  rolling  into  a  ball;  the  body  convex  above, 
and  concave  underneath,  with  a  range  of  little  scales  analogous  to  the 
lateral  divisions  of  the  Trilobites  along  each  of  its  inferior  sides.     These  ani- 
mals are  terrestrial,  and  live  under  stones  in  hilly  places. 

luLus,  Lin. 
The  body  of  the  true  luli  is  cylindrical  and  very  long,  and  has  no  ridge 
or  trenchant  edge  on  the  sides  of  the  annuli;  they  roll  themselves  up  spirally. 


MYRIAPODA.  355 

The  larger  species  live  on  land,  particularly  in  the  woods  and  sandy- 
places,  and  diffuse  a  very  disagreeable  odour.  The  smallest  ones  feed  on 
fruit,  or  the  roots  and  leaves  of  esculent  vegetables.  Others  are  found 
under  the  bark  of  ti-ees,  in  moss,  &c.  There  are  two  otlier  genera,  viz. 
Polydeamus  and  Pollyxenits. 


FAMILY  II. 
CHILOPODA. 

The  antennsB  of  the  Chilopoda  are  more  slender  towards  the  ex- 
tremity, and  consist  of  fourteen  joints  and  upwards.  Their  mouth 
is  composed  of  two  mandibles  furnished  with  a  little  palpiform  ap- 
pendage, which  seem  to  have  been  soldered  in  the  middle,  and  ter- 
minate like  the  bowl  of  a  spoon  with  dentated  edges;  of  a  quadrifid 
lip,  of  two  palpi  or  little  feet,  and  of  a  second  lip  formed  by  a  second 
pair  of  feet,  dilated  and  united  at  base,  and  terminated  by  a  stout 
movable  hook,  whose  inferior  extremity  is  perforated  by  a  hole  which 
affords  an  issue  to  a  venomous  fluid. 

The  body  is  depressed  and  membranous.  Each  of  its  rings  is 
covered  with  a  coriaceous  or  cartilaginous  plate,  and  most  gene- 
rally bears  but  a  single  pair  of  feet;  the  last  is  usually  thrown  back- 
wards, and  elongated  into  a  kind  of  tail.  The  organs  of  respiration 
are  wholly,  or  partly,  composed  of  tubular  trachese. 

These  animals  run  very  fast,  are  carnivorous,  avoid  the  light,  and 
conceal  themselves  under  stones,  logs,  in  the  ground,  «Sic.  They 
are  much  dreaded  by  the  inhabitants  of  hot  climates,  where  they  are 
very  large,  and  where  their  venom  is  possibly  more  active.  The 
Scolopendra  morsitans  is  styled  in  the  Antilles  the  malfaisante. 
Some  of  them  exhibit  phosphorescent  properties. 

The  Chilopoda,  which,  in  the  system  of  Leach,  form  the  order 
Syngnatha,  from  these  last  characters,  the  nature  of  the  respiratory 
organs  and  the  feet,  may  be  thus  divided: 

Some  have  but  fifteen  pairs  of  feet,  and  their  body  viewed  from  above 
presents  fewer  segments  than  when  seen  from  beneath. 

SctJTiGEHA,  Lam. 
The  body  covered  with  eight  scutelliform  plates.     The  under  partofthe 


356  INSECTA. 

body  is  divided  into  fifteen  semi-annuli,  each  bearing  a  pair  of  feet,  termi- 
nated by  a  very  long,  slender,  multi-articulated  tarsus;  the  last  pairs  are  more 
elongated;  the  eyes  large  and  compound. 

Their  antennae  are  slender  and  tolerably  long;  the  two  palpi  salient  and 
furnished  with  small  spines.  Tlie  body  is  shorter  than  in  the  other  genera 
of  the  same  family,  and  the  joints  of  their  feet  are  proportionably  longer. 
They  are  extremely  agile  animals,  and  frequently  part  with  some  of  their 
feet  when  seized. 

LiTHOEiTJS,  Leach. 

The  stigmata  lateral;  body  divided  above  and  beneath  into  a  similar 
number  of  segments,  each  bearing  a  pair  of  feet;  the  superior  plates  alter- 
nately longer  and  shorter,  and  overlapping  each  other  close  to  the  extremity. 

The  others  have  at  least  twenty-one  pairs  effect,  and  the  segments  both 
above  and  underneath  are  equal  in  size  and  number. 

ScoiopENDiiA,  Lin. 

Those  which  form  the  two  feet  that  immediately  follow  the  two  hooks 
forming  the  exterior  lip,  present  but  twenty-one  pah's,  and  whose  antennae 
have  seventeen  joints,  constituting  the  genera  Scolopendra  and  Crytops  of 
Leach.  There  are  eight  distinct  eyes,  four  on  each  side  in  the  first,  and 
that  in  which  tlie  largest  species  are  found;  in  the  second,  they  are  null  or 
but  very  slightly  visible. 


ORDER  II. 

THYSANOURA, 

This  order  consists  of  apterous  Insects,  supported  by  six  feet, 
that  experience  no  metamorphosis,  and  have,  in  addition,  particular 
organs  of  motion  either  on  the  sides  or  the  extremity  of  the  abdomen. 

FAMILY  I. 

LEPISMEN^,  Lat. 

Setiform  antennas  divided  from  their  origin  into  very  numerous 
and  small  joints;  mouth  furnished  with  very  distinct  and  salient 
palpi;  each  side  of  the  under  part  of  the  abdomen  provided  with  a 


THYSANOURA.  357 

range  of  movable  appendages,  in  the  form  of  false  feet;  abdomen 
terminated  by  articulated  setae,  three  of  which  are  the  most  remark- 
able; body  always  covered  with  small  shining  scales. 
It  comprises  but  one  genus,  the 

Lepisma,  Lin. 
The  body  of  these  animals  is  elongated  and  covered  with  small  scales, 
frequently  silvery  and  brilliant,  from  which  cii'cumstance  the  most  common 
species  has  been  compared  to  a  little  Fish.  The  antennae  are  setaceous  and 
usually  very  long.  The  feet  are  short  and  frequently  have  very  large  and 
strongly  compressed  cox<e  resembling  scales. 

Several  species  conceal  themselves  in  the  cracks  and  in  the  frame  work  of 
windows,  under  damp  boards,  in  wardi-obes,  &c.     Others  retire  under  stones. 

These  Insects  run  with  great  velocity;  some  of  them  by  means  of  their 
caudal  appendages  ai'e  enabled  to  leap.  They  are  divided  into  two  sub- 
genera, Maciiius,  Lat.  and  Lepisma,  Lin. 


FAMILY  II. 

PODURELL-^,  Lat. 

Antennae  quadriarticulated;  no  distinct  or  salient  palpi:  abdomen 
terminated  by  a  forked  tail  folded  under  the  venter  when  at  rest,  and 
used  for  leaping.  The  Podurelte  form  but  one  genus  in  the  Lin- 
nasan  system. 

PoDURA,  Lin. 

These  Insects  are  very  small,  soft  and  elongated,  with  an  oval  head  and  two 
eyes,  each  composed  of  eight  granules.  Their  legs  have  but  four  distinct 
joints.  The  tail  is  soft,  flexible,  and  formed  of  an  inferior  piece,  movable 
at  base;  to  the  extremity  of  which  are  articulated  two  appendages  suscepti- 
ble of  being  approximated,  separated,  or  crossed — they  are  the  teeth  of  the 
fork.  They  have  the  faculty  of  elevating  their  tail,  and  then  forcing  it 
suddenly  against  the  plane  of  position;  as  if  they  let  go  a  spring,  thus  rais- 
ing themselves  into  the  air,  and  even  leaping  like  the  Pulices,  but  to  a  less 
height.  They  usually  fall  on  their  back,  with  their  tail  extended  poste- 
riorly. The  middle  of  the  venter  exhibits  a  raised  oval  portion  divided  by 
a  slit. 

Some  keep  on  trees  and  plants,  under  old  pieces  of  bark,  or  stones;  others 
on  the  surface  of  stagnant  waters,  and  sometimes  on  that  of  snow  during  a 
thaw.     Several  unite  in  numerous  societies  on  the  ground,  and  at  a  distance 


358  INSECTA. 

resemble  little  heaps  of  gunpowder.     We  divide  them  into  Poduha  and 
Smtnthurus,  Lat. 


ORDER  III. 

PARASITA. 

The  Parasita,  so  called  from  their  parasitical  habits,  have  but  six 
legs,  and  are  apterous,  like  the  Thysanoura;  but  their  abdomen  is 
destitute  of  articulated  and  movable  appendages.  Their  organs  of 
vision  consist  of  but  four  or  two  ocelli;  a  great  portion  of  their 
mouth  is  internal,  exhibiting  externally,  either  a  snout  or  projecting 
mammilla  containing  a  retractile  sucker,  or  two  membranous  and 
approximated  lips  with  two  hooked  mandibles.  According  to  Lin- 
nasus,  they  form  but  one  genus,  that  of 

Pediculus,  Lin. 
Their  body  is  flattened,  nearly  diaphanous,  and  divided  into  twelve  or  ele- 
ven distinct  segments,  three  of  which  belong"  to  the  trunk,  each  bearing  one 
pair  of  legs.  The  first  of  these  segments  frequently  forms  a  sort  of  thorax. 
The  stigmata  are  very  distinct.  The  antennae  are  short,  equal,  composed 
of  five  joints,  and  frequently  inserted  in  a  notch.  There  are  one  or  two 
small  ocelli  on  each  side  of  the  head.  The  legs  are  short,  and  terminated 
by  a  very  stout  nail,  or  two  opposing  hooks,  which  enable  these  animals 
to  cling  with  great  facility  to  the  hairs  of  Quadrupeds,  or  to  the  feathers  of 
Birds,  whose  blood  they  suck,  and  on  whose  bodies  they  pass  their  lives. 
They  attach  their  ova  to  these  cutaneous  appendages.  These  Insects  al- 
ways live  on  the  same  Quadrupeds  and  on  the  same  Birds,  or  at  least  on 
animals  of  these  classes,  which  have  analogous  chai-acters  and  habits. 
Two  species  frequently  live  on  the  same  Bird.  Their  gait  in  general 
is  very  slow. 

This  genus  now  forms  several  subgenera.  They  include  the  various 
species  of  Lice  found  on  Man,  Birds,  &c. 


INSECTA.  359 

ORDER  IV. 

SUCTORIA. 

The  Suctoria,  which  constitute  the  last  order  of  the  Aptera,  have 
a  mouth  composed  of  three  pieces,  enclosed  between  two  articu- 
lated laminae,  which,  when  united,  form  a  cylindrical  or  conical 
proboscis  or  rostrum,  the  base  of  which  is  covered  by  two  scales. 
These  characters  exclusively  distinguish  this  order  from  all  others, 
and  even  from  that  of  the  Hemiptera,  to  which,  in  these  respects,  it 
approximates  the  most  closely,  and  in  which  these  Insects  were 
placed  by  Fabricius.  The  Suctoria,  besides,  undergo  true  meta- 
morphoses, analogous  to  those  of  several  Diptera,  such  as  the 
Tipulas. 

This  order  consists  of  a  single  genus,  that  of 

PuLEX,  Lin. 

The  body  of  the  Flea  is  oval,  compressed,  invested  by  a  firm  skin,  and 
divided  into  twelve  segments,  three  of  which  compose  the  trunk,  that  is 
short,  and  the  others  the  abdomen.  The  head  is  small,  strongly  compressed, 
rounded  above,  and  truncated  and  ciliated  before;  it  is  furnished  on  each 
side  with  a  small  rounded  eye,  behind  which  is  a  fossula,  in  which  we  dis- 
cover a  little  movable  body  furnished  with  small  spines.  The  legs  are 
strong,  the  last  ones  particularly,  fitted  for  leaping,  and  spinous;  the  coxa 
and  femur  are  large;  the  tarsi  is  composed  of  five  joints,  the  last  terminating 
in  two  elongated  hooks;  the  two  anterior  legs  are  inserted  almost  under 
the  head,  the  rostrum  being  placed  midway  between  them. 

The  female  lays  a  dozen  of  white  and  slightly  viscid  eggs;  the  larvx 
have  no  feet,  are  much  elongated,  resemble  little  worms,  and  are  extremely 
lively,  rolling  themselves  into  a  circle  or  spirally,  and  crawl  with  a  serpen- 
tine motion;  they  are  first  white  and  then  reddish.  Their  body  is  com- 
posed of  a  scaly  head,  without  eyes,  bearing  two  very  small  antennae,  and 
of  thirteen  segments,  with  little  tufts  of  hairs,  the  last  one  terminated  by 
two  kinds  of  hooks.  Some  small  movable  pieces  are  observed  in  the  mouth, 
by  which  these  larvje  push  themselves  forwards.  After  remaining  twelve 
days  under  this  form,  they  enclose  themselves  in  a  little  silky  cocoon  in 
which  they  become  pupse,  and  from  which,  in  about  the  same  time,  they 
issue  in  their  perfect  state. 

There  are  various  species  that  live  on  Quadrupeds,  Birds,  &c. 


360  INSECTA. 

ORDER  V. 

COLEOPTERA. 

Coleopterous  Insects  have  four  wings,  the  two  superior  of  which 
resemble  horizontal  scales,  joining  in  a  straight  line  along  the  inner 
margin;  the  inferior  wings  are  merely  folded  transversely  and  co- 
vered with  others,  which  form  cases  or  covers  for  them,  usually  de- 
nominated the  elytra. 

Of  all  Insects,  these  are  the  most  numerous  and  the  best  known. 
The  singular  form  and  brilliant  colouring  of  many  species,  the  vo- 
lume of  their  bodies,  the  greater  solidity  of  their  teguments,  which 
facilitates  their  preservation,  the  numerous  advantages,  which  the 
study  derives  from  the  various  forms  of  their  external  organs,  &c., 
have  secured  to  them  the  particular  attention  of  naturalists. 

Their  head  presents  antennse  of  various  forms,  and  almost  always 
composed  of  eleven  joints;  two  compound  eyes,  but  none  simple; 
and  a  mouth  consisting  of  a  labrum,  two  mandibles^  usually  of  a 
scaly  substance,  two  jaws,  each  furnished  with  one  or  two  palpi,  and 
of  a  labium  formed  of  two  pieces,  the  mentum  and  the  ligula,  and 
accompanied  by  two  palpi,  commonly  inserted  into  the  latter. 
Those  of  the  jaws,  or  when  they  have  two,  the  exterior  ones,  never 
consist  of  more  than  four  joints;  those  of  the  lip  usually  have  three. 

The  anterior  segment  of  the  trunk,  or  that  which  is  before  the 
wings,  usually  called  the  thorax,  bears  the  first  pair  of  legs,  and  is 
much  larger  than  the  two  other  segments.  The  latter  are  intimately 
united  with  the  base  of  the  abdomen,  and  their  inferior  portion  or 
pectus  gives  insertion  to  the  second  and  third  pairs  of  legs.  The 
second,  on  which  the  scutellum  is  placed,  is  narrowed  before,  and 
forms  a  short  pedicle  which  fits  into  the  interior  of  the  first,  and 
serves  as  a  pivot,  on  v;hich  it  moves. 

The  elytra  and  wings  arise  from  the  lateral  and  superior  edges 
of  the  metathorax.  The  elytra  are  crustaceous,  and  when  at  rest, 
join  along  their  internal  margin,  and  always  horizontally.  They 
almost  always  conceal  the  wings,  which  are  wide  and  transversely 
folded.  Several  species  are  apterous,  but  the  elytra  still  exist. 
The  abdomen  is  sessile  or  united  to  the  trunk  in  its  greatest  width. 
It  is  composed  externally  of  six  or  seven  annuli,  membranous  above, 


COLEOPTERA.  361 

or  less  solid  than  underneath.  The  number  of  joints  in  the  tarsi 
varies  from  three  to  five. 

The  Coleoptera  undergo  a  complete  metamorphosis.  The  larva 
resembles  a  worm,  having  a  scaly  head,  a  mouth  analogous  to  that 
of  the  perfect  insect  in  the  number  of  its  parts,  and  usually  six  feet. 
Some  few  species  are  destitute  of  them,  or  have  merely  simple 
mammilla?. 

The  pupa  is  inactive  and  takes  no  nourishment.  The  habitations, 
mode  of  life,  and  other  habits  of  these  Insects,  in  both  states,  vary 
greatly. 

I  divide  this  order  into  four  sections,  according  to  the  number  of 
joints  in  the  tarsi. 

The  first  comprises  the  Pentamera,  or  those  in  which  all  the 
tarsi  consist  of  ^ve  joints,  and  is  composed  of  six  families. 

FAMILY  I. 

CARNIVORA. 

Two  palpi  to  each  maxilla,  or  six  in  all;  antennse  almost  always 
filiform  or  setaceous,  and  simple. 

The  maxillae  are  terminated  by  a  scaly  hook  or  claw,  and  the  in- 
terior side  is  furnished  with  cilia  or  little  spines.  The  ligula  is  fixed 
in  an  emargination  of  the  menturn.  The  two  anterior  legs  are  in- 
serted on  the  sides  of  a  compressed  sternum,  and  placed  on  a  large 
patella;  the  two  posterior  have  a  stout  trochanter  at  their  origin; 
their  first  joint  is  large,  appears  to  be  confounded  with  the  post- 
pectus,  and  forms  a  curvilinear  triangle,  with  the  exterior  side  ex- 
cavated. 

These  Insects  pursue  and  devour  others.  Several  have  no  wings 
under  their  elytra.  The  anterior  tarsi  in  most  of  the  males  are 
dilated  or  widened. 

The  larvae  also  are  very  carnivorous.  Their  body  is  usually  cy- 
lindrical, elongated,  and  composed  of  twelve  rings;  the  head,  which 
is  not  included  in  this  supputation,  is  large,  squamous,  armed  with 
two  stout  mandibles,  recurved  at  the  poii\t,  and  presents  two  short 
and  conical  antennse,  two  maxillsB  divided  into  two  branches,  one 
of  which  is  formed  by  a  palpus,  a  ligula  bearing  two  palpi,  shorter 
2  V 


363  INSECTA. 

than  the  others,  and  six  ocelli  on  each  side.  The  first  annulus  is 
covered  by  a  squamous  plate;  the  others  are  soft,  or  have  but  little 
firmness.  Each  of  the  three  first  bears  a  pair  of  legs,  the  extremity 
of  which  curves  forwards. 

These  larvae  differ  according  to  the  genus.  In  those  of  the  Ci-- 
cindelae  and  of  the  Aristus  bucephalus,  the  top  of  the  head  is  very 
concave  in  the  middle,  whilst  its  inferior  portion  is  convex.  They 
have  two  ocelli,  on  each  side,  much  larger,  and  similar  to  those  of 
the  Lycosae.  The  superior  plate  of  the  first  segment  is  large,  and 
forms  a  semicircular  shield.  There  are  two  hooked  mammillas  on 
the  back  of  the  eighth  annulus;  the  last  has  no  remarkable  ap- 
pendage. 

In  the  other  larv^  of  this  family  which  are  known  to  us,  those  of 
Omophron  excepted,  the  head  is  weaker  and  more  equal.  The 
ocelli  are  very  small  and  similar.  The  squamous  piece  of  the  first 
ring  is  square,  and  does  not  project  from  the  body.  There  are  no 
mammillae  on  the  eighth;  and  the  last  is  terminated  by  two  conical 
appendages,  exclusive  of  a  membranous  tube  formed  by  the  prolon- 
gation of  the  end  of  the  body.  These  appendages,  in  the  larvae  of 
Calosoma  and  Carabus,  are  horny  and  dentated.  In  those  of  Har- 
palus  and  Licinus,  they  are  fleshy,  articulated  and  longer.  The  body 
of  the  larva  of  a  Harpalus  is  somewhat  shorter,  and  the  head  a  little 
larger.  The  mandibles  of  both  approach  the  form  of  those  of  the 
perfect  Insect. 

Some  are  aquatic,  others  terrestrial. 

The  latter  have  legs  exclusively  adapted  for  running,  the  four 
posterior  of  which  are  inserted  at  equal  distances;  mandibles  com- 
pletely exposed;  the  terminal  piece  of  the  maxillae  straight  inferiorly, 
and  only  curved  at  its  extremity;  and  most  frequently  an  oblong 
body  with  projecting  eyes.  All  their  tracheae  are  tubular  or 
elastic. 

They  are  divided  into  two  tribes.  The  first  or  the  Cicindelet^, 
Lat.,  comprises  the  genus 

CiciNDELA,  Lin., 
In  which  the  extremity  of  the  maxillae  is  provided  with  a  httle  nail  articu- 
lated with  it  by  its  base. 

The  head  is  large,  with  great  eyes,  and  very  projecting  and  dentated 
mandibles;  the  very  short  ligula  is  concealed  behind  the  mentum.    The  la- 


COLEOPTERA.  363 

b'lal  palpi  are  distinctly  corpposed  of  four  joints,  and  generally  pilose,  as 
well  as  those  of  the  maxillae. 

This  great  Linnaean  genus  now  fonns  various  subgenera,  such  as  Mantico- 
ra,  Megacephala,  &c.     The  true  Cicindela  or 

CiCINDELA,  Lat. 

Are  usually  of  a  darker  or  lighter  green,  mixed  with  various  brilliant 
metallic  tints;  the  elytra  are  marked  with  white  spots.  They  prefer  dry, 
warm  situations,  run  with  considerable  swiftness,  take  wing  the  moment 
they  are  approached,  but  alight  at  a  short  distance.  If  pursued  they  have 
recourse  to  the  same  means  of  escape. 

The  larvae  of  two  species  indigenous  to  France,  the  only  ones  that  have 
been  observed,  excavate  in  the  earth  a  deep  cylindrical  hole,  an  operation 
which  they  effect  with  their  mandibles  and  feet.  To  empty  it,  they  place 
the  detached  particles  on  their  head,  turn  about,  climb  up  the  ascent  little 
by  little,  resting  at  intervals  and  clinging  to  the  walls  of  their  domicil  by 
means  of  their  two  dorsal  mammillae;  when  they  arrive  at  the  mouth  of  the 
aperture  they  throw  down  their  burden.  While  in  ambuscade,  the  plate 
of  their  head  exactly  closes  the  entrance  of  their  cell,  and  is  on  a  level  with 
the  ground.  They  seize  their  prey  with  their  mandibles,  and  even  dart 
upon  it,  and  by  a  see-saw  motion  of  their  head  precipitate  it  to  the  bottom 
of  the  hole.  Thither  also  they  quickly  retreat  on  the  least  intimation  of 
danger.  If  they  are  too  confined,  or  the  soil  is  not  of  a  proper  nature,  they 
construct  a  new  habitation  elsewhere.  Such  is  their  voracity  that  they 
devour  other  larvae  of  the  same  species,  which  have  taken  up  their  abode 
in  their  vicinity.  When  about  to  change  their  tegument  or  to  become  pupae, 
they  close  the  opening  of  their  cell. 

The  American  species  of  Cicindela  are  numerous  and  beautiful. 

The  second  tribe,  or  the  Carabici,  Lat.,  comprehends  the  genus 

Carabus,  Lin. 
Where  the  maxillae  simply  terminate  in  a  point  or  hook,  without  an  articu- 
lated extremity. 

Their  head  is  usually  narrower  than  the  thorax,  or,  at  most,  of  the 
same  width;  their  mandibles,  those  of  a  few  excepted,  have  no  dentations 
or  but  very  few;  the  ligula  usually  projects,  and  the  labial  palpi  exhibit  but 
three  free  joints.  Many  of  them  are  destitute  of  wings,  only  havingelytra. 
They  frequently  diffuse  a  fetid  odour,  and  eject  an  acrid  and  caustic  liquid. 
Geoffroy  believed  that  the  ancients  designated  Carabici  under  the  name  of 
Buprestes,  Insects  which  they  considered  as  highly  poisonous,  particularly 
to  Oxen. 

The  Carabici  conceal  themselves  in  the  ground,  under  stones,  chips, 
bark  of  old  trees,  &c.,  and  are  mostly  very  active.     Their  larvae  have  the 


364  INSECTA. 

same  habits.     This   tribe  is  very  numerous,  and  forms  a  most  difficult 
study. 

The  Carabici  are  now  variously  subdivided.  Each  section  consisting  of 
numerous  genera.     We  find, 

1.  The  Truncatippennes,  so  called  because  the  posterior  extremity  of 
their  elytra  is  almost  always  ti'uncated.  The  head  and  thorax  are  narrower 
than  the  abdomen.  The  ligula  is  most  commonly  oval  or  square,  and  is 
rarely  accompanied  on  the  sides  by  salient  divisions. 

This  section  consists  of  Jlnthia,  Graphipterus,  Jtptinus,  Brachinus,  Casno- 
nia,  he.  &c. 

2.  The  BiPARTiTi,  which  in  relation  to  their  habits  might  aLso  be  styled 
Fossores,  is  composed  of  Carabici  with  elytra  either  entire  or  slightly  sinu- 
atedat  their  posterior  extremity;  having  frequently  granose  and  geniculate 
antennae;  a  broad  head,  large  thorax,  usually  shaped  like  a  cup  or  almost 
semi-orbicular,  and  separated  from  the  abdomen  by  an  interval  which  causes 
the  latter  to  appear  pediculated;  the  legs  generally  but  slightly  elongated, 
their  tarsi  usually  short,  and  similar  in  the  two  sexes,  or  nearly  so,  without 
any  brush  beneath,  and  simply  furnished  with  ordinary  hairs  or  cilia.  The 
two  anterior  tibiae  are  dentated,  and  in  several  palmated  or  digitated;  the 
mandibles  frequently  strong  and  dentated.  There  is  a  tooth  in  the  emar- 
gination  of  the  mentum.  They  all  keep  on  the  ground,  conceal  themselves 
either  in  holes  which  they  excavate,  or  under  stones,  and  frequently  only 
leave  their  retreat  at  night.  They  are  usually  of  a  uniform  black.  The 
larvae  of  the  Ditomus  bucephalus,  the  only  one  that  has  been  observed,  has 
the  form  and  mode  of  life  of  the  larvae  of  the  Cicindelae.  They  are  more 
particularly  proper  to  hot  countries. 

The  genera  are  Enceladus,  Siagona,  Pasimachus,  Scarites,  &c.  &c. 

3.  The  Quadhimani  includes  those,  otherwise  similar  to  the  last  in  the 
pointed  termination  of  the  posterior  extremity  of  their  elytra,  in  the  males 
of  which  the  four  anterior  tarsi  are  dilated;  the  three  or  four  first  joints  are 
in  the  form  of  a  reversed  heart  or  triangular,  and  nearly  all  terminated 
by  acute  angles;  they  are  usually  furnished  underneath  (the  Ophoni  ex- 
cepted) with  two  ranges  of  papillx  or  scales,  with  an  intermediate  linear 
space. 

The  body  is  always  winged,  and  generally  oval  and  arcuated  or  convex 
above;  the  thorax  is  wider  than  it  is  long,  or  at  most  nearly  isometrical, 
square  or  trapezoidal.  The  head  is  never  suddenly  contracted  posteriorly, 
and  the  antennse  are  equal  throughout,  or  slightly  and  insensibly  thickened 
near  the  extremity.  The  mandibles  are  never  very  strong.  The  exterior 
palpi  are  terminated  by  an  oval  or  fusiform  joint,  longer  than  the  preceding 
one.  1  he  tooth  of  the  emargination  of  the  mentum  is  always  entire,  and  in 
some  is  wanting.  The  legs  are  robust,  the  tibise  spiny,  and  the  hooks  of 
the  tarsi  simple.     The  intermediate  tarsi,  even  in  the  females,  are  short. 


COLEOPTERA.  365 

and,  with  the  exception  of  the  dilatation,  nearly  formed  like  the  anterior. 
These  Carabici  prefer  sandy  and  hot  localities. 
Here  we  have,  ^cinopus,  Daptus,  Ilarpalus,  &c. 

4.  The  SiMPiiciMAif  I  approaches  the  preceding'  in  the  manner  in  which 
the  elytra  are  terminated;  but  the  two  anterior  tarsi  alone  are  dilated  in  the 
males,  without  however  forming  a  square  or  orbicular  palette;  sometimes 
the  three  first  joints  are  much  wider,  and  in  this  case  the  succeeding  one 
is  always  smaller  than  its  antecedent;  sometimes  the  latter  and  the  two  pre- 
ceding ones  are  larger,  almost  equal,  and  in  the  form  of  a  reversed  heart  or 
triangular:  tlie  first  joints  of  the  four  following  tarsi  arc  more  slender  and 
elongated,  almost  cylindrical,  or  in  the  form  of  an  elongated  and  reversed 
cone. 

The  genera  are  Zabrus,  Pogonus,  Feronia,  &c. 

5.  The  Pateliimani,  distinguished  from  the  Simplicimani,  by  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  two  anterior  tarsi  of  the  males  are  dilated,  the  first  joints 
— usually  the  three  first,  then  the  fourth,  and  sometimes  only  the  two  first 
— all  of  which  are  sometimes  square,  and  at  others  only  in  part,  the  re- 
mainder being  cordiform,  or  resembling  a  reversed  triangle,  but  always 
rounded  at  their  extremity,  and  not  terminated  as  in  the  preceding  sections 
by  acute  angles,  form  an  orbicular  palette  or  long  square,  the  inferior  sur- 
face of  which  is  usually  furnished  with  brushes  or  crowded  papillx,  without 
any  intermediate  vacancy. 

The  legs  are  generally  slender  and  elongated,  and  the  thorax  is  fre- 
quently narrower  than  the  abdomen,  throughout  its  whole  length.  Most 
of  them  frequent  the  shores  of  rivers,  or  other  aquatic  localities. 

The  genera  are,  Dolichus,  Agonus,  Chlasnius,  Dicaelus,  &c.  &c. 

6.  The  Gkasdipalpi,  whose  anterior  tibiae  have  no  emargination  on  the 
internal  side,  or  which  present  one  that  begins  close  to  their  extremity,  or 
that  does  not  extend  on  their  anterior  face,  and  forming  a  mere  oblique  and 
linear  canal.  The  ligula  is  often  extremely  short,  terminated  in  a  point  in 
the  middle  of  its  summit,  and  accompanied  by  pointed  paraglossae.  The 
mandibles  are  robust.  The  last  joint  of  the  exterior  palpi  is  usually  larger, 
compressed  into  the  form  of  a  reversed  triangle,  or  securiform  in  some,  and 
almost  into  that  of  a  spoon  in  others.  The  eyes  are  prominent.  The 
elytra  are  entire  or  simply  sinuous  at  their  posterior  extremity.  The  abdo- 
men, compared  with  the  other  parts  of  the  body,  is  voluminous.  They  are 
generally  large  Insects,  are  ornamented  with-briUiant  metallic  colours,  run 
very  fast,  and  are  extremely  carnivorous. 

In  this  section  we  have  Pamborus,  Cychrus,  Scaphinotus,  Procerusy  Cola- 
soma  and 

Carabus,  Lin.  Fab. 
Or  Carabus  properly  so  called.     The  labrum  is  simply  emarginate   or 
bilobate;  tooth  of  the  emargination  of  the  mentum  entire. 


366  INSECTA. 

Count  Dejean  describes  one  hundred  and  twenty-four  species,  which  he 
has  arranged  in  sixteen  divisions.  The  first  thirteen  comprise  those  whose 
elytra  are  convex  or  arched,  and  the  three  last,  those  in  which  they  J  are 
plane. 

The  greater  number  of  these  species  inhabit  Europe,  Caucasus,  Siberia, 
Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and  the  north  of  Africa  to  the  thirtieth  degree  of  north 
latitude.  Some  few  are  also  found  at  the  two  extremities  of  America,  and 
it  is  probable  that  others  may  be  found  in  the  intermediate  mountains(l). 

The  Pentamerous  Aquatic  Carnivora  form  a  third  tribe,  that  of 
the  Hydrocanthaei,  Lat.  The  feet  of  these  Insects  are  fitted  for 
natation;  the  four  last  are  compressed,  ciliated  or  laminiform,  and 
the  two  last  at  a  distance  from  the  others;  the  mandibles  are  almost 
entirely  covered;  the  body  is  always  oval,  the  eyes  but  slightly  promi- 
nent, and  the  thorax  much  wider  than  long.  The  terminal  hook  of 
the  maxillsB  is  arcuated  from  its  base;  those  at  the  extremity  of  the 
tarsi  are  often  unequal. 

They  compose  the  genera  Dytiscus  and  Gyrinus  of  Geoffroy. 
They  pass  their  first  and  last  stage  of  existence  in  the  fresh  and  pla- 
cid waters  of  lakes,  marshes,  ponds,  &c.  They  are  good  swim- 
mers, and  rise  occasionally  to  the  surface  of  their  liquid  abodes  in 
order  to  respire;  this  they  easily  effect  by  keeping  their  legs  motion- 
less, and  permitting  themselves  to  float.  Their  body  being  reversed, 
they  elevate  its  posterior  extremity  a  little  above  the  water,  raise 
the  extremity  of  their  elytra,  or  depress  the  end  of  the  abdomen,  in 
order  that  air  may  enter  the  stigmata,  which  are  covered  by  them, 
whence  it  finds  its  way  to  the  tracheae.  They  are  excessively  vora- 
cious, and  feed  on  small  animals  inhabiting  the  same  element,  which 
they  never  leave  excepting  during  the  night,  or  at  its  approach. 
When  taken  from  the  water  they  diffuse  a  nauseating  odour.  They 
are  frequently  attracted  into  houses  by  the  light  of  candles,  &c. 

Their  larvae  have  a  long  and  narrow  body  composed  of  twelve 
rings,  the  first  of  which  is  the  largest;  a  stout  head,  provided  with 
two  powerful  mandibles,  curved  into  an  arc,  and  perforated  near  the 


(1)  Of  the  species  that  inhabit  North  America,  we  have  as  yet  only  dis- 
covered the  C.  Seauvoisi,  carinatus,  Lherminier?,  Uneatopundatus  {serratus. 
Say),  syhosus  and  vinctus.  The  mountains  of  New  Hampshu-e,  and  Maine 
particularly,  probably  contain  several  otbers,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that 
some  friend  of  the  science,  within  reach  of  those  localities,  wiU  soon  enable 
MS  to  enlarge  our  catalogue  of  this  interesting  genus,  as  well  as  that  of 
otliers  found  in  the  same  localities. — Am.  Ed. 


COLEOPTERA,  367 

pointj  small  antennse,  palpi,  and  six  simple,  approximated  eyes  on 
each  side.  They  have  six  tolerably  long  legs,  frequently  fringed 
with  hairs,  and  terminated  by  two  small  nails.  They  are  active, 
carnivorous,  and  respire  either  at  the  extremity  or  by  a  kind  of  fins 
resembling  branchiae.  When  about  to  enter  into  their  pupa  state 
they  leave  the  water. 

This  tribe  consists  of  two  principal  genera. 

Dytiscus,  Geoff. 
The  Dytisci  have  filiform  antennae  : longer  than  the  head,  two  eyes,  the  an- 
terior legs  shorter  than  the  following  ones,  and  the  last  most  commonly 
terminated  by  a  compressed  tarsus  ending  in  a  point.  By  means  of  their 
legs  fringed  with  long  hairs,  the  two  last  particularly,  they  are  enabled  to 
swim  with  great  velocity.  They  dart  upon  other  Insects,  aquatic  Worms,  &,c. 
In  most  of  the  males  the  three  first  joints  of  the  four  anterior  tarsi  are 
widened  and  spongy  underneath;  those  of  the  first  pair  particularly  are  very 
remarkable  in  the  larger  species,  these  three  joints  forming  there  a  large 
palette,  the  inferior  surface  of  which  Is  covered  by  little  bodies,  some  in 
the  form  of  papillse,  and  others,  larger,  in  that  of  cups  or  suckers,  &c.  The 
body  of  the  larva  is  composed  of  from  eleven  to  twelve  annuli,  and  covered 
with  a  squamous  plate;  this  larva  is  long,  ventricose  in  the  middle,  and 
slender  at  each  end,  particularly  behind,  where  the  last  annuli  form  an 
elongated  cone  furnished  on  the  sides  with  a  fringe  of  floating  hairs,  with 
which  the  animal  acts  on  the  water,  and  propels  its  body  forwards;  the  lat- 
ter is  usually  terminated  by  two  conical,  bearded  and  movable  filaments. 

These  larvae  suspend  themselves  on  the  svirface  of  the  water  by  means  of 
two  lateral  appendages  at  the  extremity  of  their  body,  which  they  keep 
above  it.  When  they  wish  to  change  their  position,  they  communicate  a 
sudden  vermicular  motion  to  their  body,  and  strike  the  water  with  their 
tail.  They  feed  more  particularly  on  the  larvae  of  the  Libellulse,  and  those 
of  the  Culices  and  Aselli.  When  the  period  of  their  metamorphosis  has 
arrived,  they  issue  from  the  water,  and  having  gained  the  shore,  penetrate 
into  the  earth,  which  must,  however,  be  constantly  moistened,  or  very  hu- 
mid.    They  then  excavate  an  oval  cavity,  and  shut  themselves  up  in  it. 

According  to  RcEsel,  the  eggs  of  the  D.  marginalis  are  hatched  from  ten 
to  twelve  days  after  they  are  laid.  In  foui'  or  five  days  after  this  epoch, 
the  larva  is  already  five  lines  in  length,  and  undergoes  its  first  change  of 
tegument.  The  second  ensues  at  the  expiration  of  a  similar  period,  and 
the  animal  is  then  double  its  former  size.  Its  final  length  is  two  inches. 
They  have  been  observed,  in  summer,  to  enter  into  their  pupa  at  the  end  of 
fifteen  days,  and  to  become  perfect  insects  in  fifteen  or  twenty  more. 

This  great  genus  is  now  divided  into  several,  Dytiscus  proper,  Colymbetes, 
Hygrobia,  8cc. 

The  second  genus  of  the  Hydrocanthari,  or  the 


368  INSECTA. 

Gyeinus,  Lin. 

Comprises  those  In  which  the  antennae  are  clavate  and  shorter  than  the 
head;  the  two  first  legs  are  long-  and  project  like  arms;  the  remaining  four 
are  compressed,  wide,  and  pinnate.     There  are  four  eyes. 

The  body  is  oval  and  usually  very  glossy.  The  second  joint  of  the  an- 
tennae, which  are  inserted  in  a  cavity  before  the  eyes,  is  prolonged  exteri- 
orly in  the  form  of  an  auricle,  and  the  following  joints  are  very  short, 
crowded,  and  united  in  one  almost  fusiform  and  slightly  curved  mass.  The 
head  is  sunk  in  the  thorax  almost  to  the  eyes,  which  are  large,  and  divided 
by  a  border,  in  such  a  way  that  two  are  above  and  two  underneath.  The 
labrum  is  rounded  and  strongly  ciliated  before.  The  palpi  are  very  small, 
and  the  interior  of  those  attached  to  the  maxillEe  are  wanting,  or  are  not 
developed  in  several,  and  particularly  the  larger  species.  The  thorax  is 
short  and  transversal.  The  elytra  are  obtruse  and  truncated  at  their  pos- 
terior extremity,  leaving  the  extremity  exposed,  which  ends  in  a  point. 
The  two  anterior  legs  are  long,  slender,  folded  in  two,  and  when  contracted, 
almost  at  a  right  angle  with  the  body;!  they  are  terminated  by  a  very  short, 
strongly  compressed  tarsus,  the  inferior  surface  of  which,  in  the  males,  is 
furnished  with  a  fine  compact  brush.  The  four  others  are  broad  and  ex- 
tremely thin,  the  joints  of  their  tarsi  forming  little  leaflets  arranged  like  a 
flounce. 

The  Gyrini  are  usually  small,  or  of  a  moderate  size.  They  are  to  be 
found  from  the  very  beginning  of  spring  untU  the  end  of  autumn,  on  the 
surface  of  stagnant  waters,  and  even  on  that  of  the  Ocean,  where,  frequently 
collected  in  troops,  they  appear  like  brilliant  points,  swimming  and  wheel- 
ing with  great  agility  in  all  sorts  of  curves,  and  in  every  direction,  whence 
the  name  of  Puce  aquatique  and  Tourniquet  given  to  them  by  authors. 
Sometimes  they  remain  motionless,  but  the  instant  any  one  approaches, 
they  escape,  by  swimming,  and  dive  with  g^eat  celerity.  Their  four  last 
legs  serve  them  as  oars,  and  the  two  before  for  seizing  their  prey.  Placed 
on  water,  the  superior  surface  of  their  body  is  always  dry,  and  when  they 
dive,  a  httle  bubble  of  air,  resembling  a  silvery  globule,  remains  fixed  to 
its  posterior  extremity.  When  seized,  a  lacteous  fluid  oozes  from  their 
body  which  spreads  over  it,  and  which,  perhaps,  produces  that  disagi'eeable 
and  penetrating  odour  they  then  diffuse,  and  which  remains  attached  to  the 
fingers  for  a  long  time.  Sometimes  they  remain  at  the  bottom  of  the  water 
chnging  to  plants:  there,  also,  it  is  probable  they  secrete  themselves  to  pass 
the  winter. 


FAMILY  II. 

BRACHELYTRA. 

In  the  second  family  of  the  Pentamerous  Coleoptera  we  find  but 
one  palpus  to  the  maxillae,  or  four  in  all;  the  antennas,  sometimes  of 


COLEOPTERA.  369 

equal  thickness,  and  at  others  slightly  enlarged  at  the  end,  are  usually 
composed  of  lenticular  or  graniform  joints;  the  elytra  are  much 
shorter  than  the  body,  which  is  narrow  and  elongated,  and  the  coxae 
of  the  two  anterior  legs  are  very  large;  near  the  extremity  of  the 
abdomen  are  two  vesicles  which  the  animal  protrudes  at  will. 
These  Coleoptera  compose  the  genus 

Staphylinus,  Lin. 

The  Staphylini  have  been  considered  as  forming'  the  passage  from  the  Co- 
leoptera to  the  Forficulae,  the  first  genus  of  the  following  order.  They 
commonly  have  a  large,  flattened  head,  stout  mandibles,  short  antennae,  a 
thorax  as  wide  as  the  abdomen,  and  the  el}'tra  truncated  at  the  extremity, 
but  still  covering  the  wings,  which  preserve  their  usual  extent.  The  semi- 
annuli  of  the  top  of  the  abdomen  are  as  scaly  as  those  of  the  venter.  The 
vesicles  of  the  extremity  consist  in  two  conical  and  pilose  points,  which  are 
protruded  and  retracted  at  the  will  of  the  animal;  a  subtile  vapour  escapes 
from  them,  which,  in  some  species,  has  a  strong  odour  of  sulphuric  ether. 

These  Insects,  when  touched,  or  while  they  run,  elevate  the  extremity 
of  their  abdomen  and  flex  it  in  every  direction.  They  also  use  it  to  push 
their  wings  imder  the  elytra.  The  tarsi  of  their  two  anterior  legs  are  fre- 
quently broad  and  dilated,  and  their  coxae,  as  well  as  those  of  the  interme- 
diate legs,  are  very  large.  They  are  usually  found  in  eartli,  and  other  mat- 
ters; some  live  in  mushrooms,  rotten  wood,  or  under  stones;  others  are  only 
met  with  in  aquatic  localities.  Some  very  small  ones  keep  on  flowers. 
They  are  all  voracious,  run  with  great  swiftness,  and  take  wing  very 
promptly. 

The  larva  bears  a  close  resemblance  to  the  perfect  Insect:  it  has  the 
figure  of  an  elongated  cone,  the  base  of  which  is  occupied  by  the  very  large 
head;  the  last  ring  is  prolonged  into  a  tube,  and  is  accompanied  by  two 
conical  and  hairy  appendages.  It  feeds  on  the  same  matters  as  the  perfect 
Insect. 

This  genus  is  very  extensive  and  is  now  divided  into  six  sections,  viz. 
The  FissiLABHA,  where  we  find  the  true  Staphylini,  the  Longipaipi,  the 
Deuticrura,  the  Dephebsa,  and  the  Microcephala.  Each  of  these  sec- 
tions consists  of  various  genera.     The  species  are  excessively  numerous. 


2  W 


370  INSECTA. 

FAMILY  III. 

SERRICORNES(l). 

In  the  third  family  of  pentamerous  Coleoptera,  as  in  the  preced- 
ing and  following  families  of  the  same  order,  we  find  but  four  palpi. 
The  elytra  cover  the  abdomen,  which,  with  some  other  characters, 
distinguish  the  Insects  which  compose  it  from  the  Brachelytra  just 
mentioned.  The  antennae,  with  some  exceptions,  are  equal  through- 
out, or  smaller  at  the  extremity,  dentated,  either  like  a  saw  or  a 
comb,  or  even  like  a  fan,  and  in  this  respect  are  most  developed  in 
the  males.  The  penultimate  joint  of  the  tarsi  is  frequently  bilobate 
or  bifid.  These  characters  are  rarely  found  in  the  following  family, 
that  of  the  Clavicornes,  to  which  we  arrive  by  such  insensible  gra- 
dations, that  to  define  its  limits  rigorously,  becomes  a  very  difficult 
matter. 

Some,  in  which  the  body  is  always  firm  and  solid,  and  most  com- 
monly oval  or  elliptical,  with  partly  contractile  legs,  have  the  head 
plunged  vertically  into  the  thorax  up  to  the  eyes;  and  the  praester- 
num,  or  median  portion  of  the  thorax,  elongated,  dilated  or  reaching 
to  beneath  the  mouth,  usually  distinguished  on  each  by  a  groove  in 
which  the  antennae — always  short — are  lodged,  and  prolonged  pos- 
teriorly into  a  point,  which  is  received  into  a  depression  of  the  ante- 
rior extremity  of  the  mesosternum.  These  anterior  legs  are  at  a 
distance  from  the  anterior  extremity  of  the  thorax.  They  form  a 
first  section,  or  that  of  the  Sternoxi. 

Others,  whose  head  is  enclosed  posteriorly  by  the  thorax,  or  at 
least  covered  by  it  at  base,  but  in  which  the  praesternum  is  not  di- 
lated, and  does  not  project  anteriorly  in  the  manner  of  a  chin-cloth, 
and  is  not  usually  terminated  posteriorly  in  a  point  received  into  a 
cavity  in  the  mesosternum,  and  in  which  the  body  is  most  commonly 
either  entirely  or  partially  soft  and  flexible,  constitute  a  second  sec- 
tion, that  of  the  Malacodekmi. 

A  third  and  last,  that  of  the  Xylotrogi,  will  comprise  those 
Serricornes,  in  which  the  posterior  extremity  of  the  praesternum  is 
not  similarly  prolonged,  but  whose  head  is  completely  exposed  and 
separated  from  the  thorax  by  a  strangulation  or  species  of  neck. 


(1)  Saw-horned. 


COLEOPTERA.  371 

We  will  divide  the  Sternoxi  into  two  tribes.  In  the  first,  or  that 
of  the  BupEESTiDES,  the  posterior  projection  of  the  praesternum  is 
flattened,  and  not  terminated  in  a  laterally  compressed  point,  that  is 
simply  received  into  a  depression  or  emargination  of  the  mesoster- 
num.  The  mandibles  frequently  terminate  in  an  entire  point,  with- 
out any  fissure  or  emargination.  The  posterior  angles  of  the  thorax 
are  either  but  very  slightly  or  not  at  all  prolonged.  The  last  joint 
of  the  palpi  is  most  commonly  nearly  cylindrical,  hardly  thicker  than 
the  preceding;  the  others  are  globular  or  ovoid.  Most  of  the  tarsial 
segments  are  generally  wide  or  dilated,  and  furnished  beneath  with 
pellets.  These  Insects  never  leap,  a  character  which  eminently 
distinguishes  them  from  those  of  the  following  tribe:  they  compose 
the  genus 

BuPRESTis,  Lin. 

The  generic  appellation  of  Richard,  g-lven  to  these  Coleoptera  by  GeofF- 
roy,  intimates  the  richness  of  their  livery.  Several  of  the  European  spe- 
cies, and  many  that  are  foreign  to  that  countiy,  besides  their  size,  are 
remarkable  for  a  brilliant  polished  gold  colour  on  an  emerald  ground;  in 
others,  an  azure  blue  glistens  over  the  gold,  or  there  is  a  union  of  several 
other  metallic  colours.  Their  body,  in  general,  is  oval,  somewhat  wider 
and  obtuse,  or  truncated  before,  and  narrowed  behind  from  the  base  of  the 
abdomen,  which  occupies  the  greater  part  of  its  length.  The  eyes  are  oval, 
and  the  thorax  Is  short  and  wide.  The  scutel  small  or  null.  The  extremity 
of  the  elytra  is  more  or  less  dentated  in  many.     The  legs  are  short. 

They  walk  very  slowly,  but  fly  well  in  hot  and  dry  weather.  When  about 
to  be  seized,  they  let  themselves  fall  to  the  ground.  At  the  posterior  extre- 
mity of  the  abdomen  of  the  females  is  a  coriaceous,  lamlnltbrm,  conical  ap- 
pendage composed  of  three  parts,  the  last  annuli  of  the  abdomen;  it  is  pro- 
bably an  instrument  with  which  they  deposit  their  ova  in  dry  wood,  the 
habitat  of  their  larvae.  Several  small  species  are  met  with  on  leaves  and 
flowers;  most  of  the  others,  however,  are  found  in  forests  and  wood-yards: 
they  sometimes  appear  in  houses,  where  they  have  been  transported,  in 
wood.  In  the  state  of  a  larva  or  chrysalis. 

B.  gigas,  L.  Two  inches  long;  thorax  cupreous,  mixed  with  brilliant 
green,  and  two  large  smooth  spots  of  burnished  steel;  elytra  trldentate  at 
the  extremity,  cupreous  in  the  middle,  bronze-green  on  the  margin,  with 
impressed  puncta,  and  elevated  lines  and  rugae.     Cayenne. 

This  beautiful  and  extensive  genus  is  now  divided  Into  four  genera,  viz. 
Buprestis proper,  Trachys,  Aphanisticus  and  Melasis.  Numerous  species  are 
found  in  this  country. 

The  second  tribe  or  that  of  the  Elaterides,  which  only  differs 


372  INSECTA. 

essentially  from  the  first  in  the  posterior  stylet  of  the  praesternum, 
which  terminates  in  a  laterally  compressed  point,  frequently  some- 
what arcuated  and  unidentate,  that  sinks  at  the  will  of  the  animal 
into  a  cavity  of  the  pectus,- situated  immediately  above  the  origin  of 
the  second  pair  of  legs;  and  in  the  circumstance,  that  these  Insects 
when  placed  on  their  back  have  the  faculty  of  regaining  their  origi- 
nal position  by  bounding  upwards.  Most  of  them  have  mandibles 
emarginated  or  cleft  at  the  end,  palpi  terminated  by  a  triangular  or 
securiform  joint,  much  larger  than  those  which  precede  it,  and  the 
joints  of  ihe  tarsi  entire.     This  tribe  only  comprises  the  genus 

Elatee,  Lin. 
The  body  is  usually  narrower  and  more  elongated  than  that  of  the  Bupres- 
tides,  and  the  posterior  angles  of  the  thorax  ai'e  prolonged  into  a  sharp 
point,  in  the  form  of  a  spine. 

The  common  French  name  of  these  Insects  is  Scarab^es  a  ressort,  and  their 
Latin  one,  Notopeda,  Elater.  When  placed  on  their  back,  finding  it  imposs- 
ible to  regain  their  natural  position  on  account  of  the  shortness  of  their 
legs,  they  bound  perpendicularly  upwards  until  they  fall  on  their  feet.  To 
execute  this  motion,  they  press  the  latter  close  to  the  body,  lower  their 
head  and  thorax,  which  has  a  free  downward  motion,  then  approximating 
this  last  to  the  postpectus,  they  forcibly  press  the  point  of  the  praesternum 
against  the  margin  of  the  hole  situated  before  the  mesosternum,  into  which 
it  sinks  suddenly,  as  if  by  a  spring.  The  thorax  and  its  lateral  points,  the 
head  and  elytra,  being  violently  propelled  against  the  plane  of  position, 
particularly  if  it  be  solid  and  smooth,  concur  by  their  elasticity  in  causing 
the  body  to  bound  upwards.  The  sides  of  the  praesternum  are  distinguished 
by  a  groove,  where  the  antennae,  which  are  pectinated  or  bearded  in  seve- 
ral males,  are  partly  lodged.  The  females  have  a  species  of  elongated 
ovipositor  with  two  lateral  pieces  pointed  at  the  end,  between  which  is  the 
true  oviduct. 

The  Elaterides  are  found  on  flowers,  plants,  and  even  on  the  ground; 
they  lower  their  head  in  walking,  and  if  any  one  approaches,  let  themselves 
fall,  pressing  their  legs  against  their  body. 

The  various  subgenera  of  this  tribe  may  be  referred  to  two  principal 
divisions.  Those  where  the  antennae  can  be  entirely  received  into  the  in- 
ferior cavities  of  the  thorax  constitute  the  first. 

The  second  division  includes  all  those  whose  antennae  are  exterior  or 
exposed. 

Elater,  properly  so  called. 
The  antennae  of  the  males  are  simply  serrated. 

E-  nodilucus,  L.  llather  more  than  an  inch  long;  dusky-brown,  with  a 
cinereous  down;  a  convex,  yellow,  round,  shining  spot  on  each  side  of  the 


COLEOPTERA.  373 

thorax  near  its  posterior  angles;  elytra  marked  with  lines  of  small  punctures. 
From  South  America. 

During-  the  nig-ht,  the  thoracic  spots  diffuse  a  very  strong  light,  suffici- 
ently bright  to  enable  one  to  read  the  smallest  character,  particularly  if 
several  of  the  Insects  be  placed  in  the  same  vase.  By  it  also  the  women 
of  the  country  pursue  their  work;  and  ladies  even  use  it  as  an  ornament, 
placing  it  in  their  hair  during  the  evening  paseo.  The  Indians  fix  them  to 
their  feet  to  light  them  in  their  nocturnal  journeys. 

North  America  is  exti-emely  rich  in  this  genus.  The  Insect  is  usually 
called  a  Snap-bug. 

Our  second  section,  or  that  of  the  Malacodermi,  is  divided  into 
five  tribes.  In  the  first,  or  the  Cebeionites,  so  named  fronn  the 
genus  Cebrio  of  Olivier,  on  which  all  the  others  depend,  the  man- 
dibles terminate  in  a  simple  or  entire  point,  the  palpi  are  of  equal 
thickness  or  more  slender  at  the  extremity,  the  body  is  rounded  and 
convex  in  some,  oval  or  oblong,  but  arcuated  above,  and  inclined 
anteriorly  in  others.  It  is  usually  soft  and  flexible;  the  thorax  is 
transversal,  widest  at  base,  and  its  lateral  angles  acute,  or  in  seve- 
ral even  prolonged  into  spines.  The  antennae  are  generally  longer 
than  the  head  and  thorax.     The  legs  are  not  contractile. 

Their  habits  are  unknown.  Many  of  them  are  found  on  plants  in 
aquatic  localities.     They  may  all  be  united  in  one  genus,  that  of 

Cebrio,  Oliv.  Fab. 
Some,  which  establish  a  connexion  between  this  and  the  preceeding  tribe, 
which  are  even  of  as  firm  and  solid  a  consistence  as  the  Stemoxi,  whose  legs 
are  never  fitted  for  leaping,  and  whose  body  is  generally  an  oblong  oval, 
witli  the  antennae  of  the  males  either  pectinated,  flabellated,  or  serrated, 
the  palpi  filiform  or  somewhat  elongated  at  the  extremity,  and  the  pos- 
terior angles  of  the  thorax  prolonged  into  an  acute  point,  present  man- 
dibles projecting  beyond  the  lab  rum,  narrow,  and  highly  arcuated  or  in  the 
form  of  hooks.  The  labrum  is  usually  very  short,  and  emarginated  or 
bilobate. 

There,  as  in  the  Elaterides,  the  prsesternum  terminates  posteriorly  in  a 
point,  received  into  a  cavity  in  the  mesosternum. 

The  antennae,  wliich  in  the  males  of  some  species  are  long,  are  composed 
of  eleven  pectinated  or  serrated  joints.  The  last  joint  of  the  palpi  isalmost 
cylindrical  or  forms  a  reversed  cone . 

This  genus  is  now  cut  up  into  several,  such  as  Physodadylus,  Anelastes, 
Sandalus,  Rhipicera,  &c. 

The  second  tribe  of  the  Malacodermi,  or  that  of  the  Lampyrides, 
is  distinguished  from  the  first  by  the  enlarged  termination  of  the 


374  INSECTA. 

palpi,  or  at  least  those  of  the  maxillas,  by  their  always  soft,  straight, 
depressed,  or  but  slightly  convex  body,  and  by  the  thorax,  some- 
times semicircular,  and  at  others  nearly  square  or  trapezoidal,  that 
projects  over  the  head,  which  it  either  entirely  or  partially  covers. 
The  mandibles  are  usually  small,  and  terminate  in  a  slender,  arcu- 
ated, very  acute  point,  that  is  generally  entire.  The  penultimate 
joint  of  the  tarsi  is  always  bilobate,  and  the  crotchets  of  the  last  have 
neither  dentations  nor  appendages. 

The  females  of  some  are  apterous,  or  have  but  very  short  elytra. 
When  seized,  these  Insects  press  their  feet  and  antennae  against 
their  body,  and  remain  as  motionless  as  if  they  were  dead.  Seve- 
ral, thus  situated,  curve  their  abdomen  underneath.  They  comprise 
the  genus 

Lampyris,  Lin. 

Antennae  closely  approximated,  at  base,  the  head  either  exposed  and  pro- 
longed anteriorly  in  the  manner  of  a  snout,  or  for  the  greater  part,  or  en- 
tirely, concealed  under  the  thorax;  eyes  of  the  males  large  and  globular; 
mouth  small.  Such  are  the  characters  of  a  first  division  of  this  tribe,  which 
we  will  subdivide  into  those  in  which  neither  sex  is  phosphorescent,  and 
those  in  which  the  females  at  least  are  possessed  of  that  faculty.  Both  sexes 
of  the  former  are  provided  with  wings,  have  their  head  exposed,  and  fre- 
quently narrower  and  extended  anteriorly,  or  in  the  form  of  a  snout,  and 
the  thorax  widened  posteriorly  with  pointed  lateral  angles.  The  two  or 
three  ultimate  annuli  of  their  abdomen  are  destitute  of  that  pale  yellowish 
or  whitish  tint,  that  is  always  found  on  this  part  of  the  body  in  the  true 
Lampyrides,  and  which  announces  their  phosphorescence  The  elytra,  in 
several,  widen  behind,  and  are  sometimes  strongly  dilated  and  rounded 
posteriorly,  in  the  females  particularly.  They  are  densely  punctured,  and 
frequently  reticulated. 

The  genera  are  Lycus,  Didyoptera  and  Omalisus. 

The  other  Irampyrides  of  our  first  division  are  distinguished  from  the 
preceding  ones,  not  only  by  the  want  of  a  snout,  by  their  head,  which,  in 
the  males  almost  entirely  occupied  by  the  eyes,  is  entirely  or  for  the  greater 
part  concealed  under  a  semicircular  or  square  thorax,  but  also  by  a  very 
remarkable  character,  either  common  to  both  sexes,  or  peculiar  to  the  fe- 
males, that  of  being  phosphorescent,  whence  the  names  of  Glow-worms,  Fire- 
Jlies,  &c.,  given  to  these  Insects. 

Their  body  is  extremely  soft,  the  abdomen  particularly,  which  has  the 
appearance  of  being  plaited.  The  luminous  matter  occupies  the  inferior 
part  of  the  last  two  or  three  annuli,  which  differ  in  colour  from  the  rest, 
and  are  usually  yellowish  or  whitish.  The  light  they  diffuse  is  more  or  less 
vivid,  and  greenish  or  whitish,  like  that  of  the  different  kinds  of  phospho- 
rus.    It  seems  that  they  can  vary  its  action  at  pleasure,  a  fact  particularly 


COLEOPTEBA.  375 

observable  when  they  are  seized  or  held  in  the  hand.  They  live  a  long 
time  in  vacuum  and  in  different  gases,  the  nitrous  acid,  muriatic  and  sul- 
phurous gases  excepted,  in  which  they  soon  expire.  Placed  in  hydrogen 
gas,  they,  sometimes  at  least,  detonate.  They  continue  to  live  after  the 
excision  of  the  luminous  portion  of  their  abdomen,  and  the  part  thus  sepa- 
rated preserves  its  luminous  property  for  some  time,  whether  it  be  submitted 
to  the  action  of  various  gases,  be  placed  in  vacuum,  or  left  exposed  to  the 
air.  The  phosphorescence  depends  on  the  softness  of  tlie  matter,  rather 
than  on  the  life  of  the  animal.  ^^  hen  apparently  extinct  it  may  reproduced 
by  softening  the  matter  with  water.  The  Lampyrides  emit  a  brilliant  light 
when  immersed  in  warm  water,  but  in  cold  water  it  becomes  extinguished: 
this  fluid  seems  to  be  the  only  dissolving  agent  of  the  phosphoric  matter. 
They  are  nocturnal  Insects. 

In  our  second  division  of  the  Lampyrides,  the  antennae  are  very  remote 
at  base;  the  head  is  neither  prolonged  nor  narrowed  anteriorly  in  the  form 
of  a  snout,  and  the  eyes  are  of  an  ordinary  size  in  both  sexes. 

This  division  consists  of  tlie  genera  Drilus,  Telephorus,  Silis,  &c. 

In  the  third  tribe  of  the  Malacodermi,  or  the  Melybides,  we  find 
the  palpi  most  commonly  short  and  filiform;  mandibles  emarginated 
at  the  point;  the  body  usually  narrow  and  elongated;  the  head  only 
covered  at  base  by  a  flat  or  but  slightly  convex  thorax,  generally 
square,  or  elongated  and  quadrilateral;  joints  of  the  tarsi  entire,  and 
the  hooks  of  the  last  one  unidentated  or  bordered  with  a  mem- 
brane. The  antennae  are  usually  serrated,  and,  in  the  males  of 
some  species,  even  pectinated. 

Most  of  them  are  very  active,  and  are  found  on  flowers  and 
leaves. 

This  tribe,  which  is  a  mere  division  of  the  genera  Cantharis  and 
Dermestes  of  Linnaeus,  will  form  the  genus 

Melyris,  Fab., 
Now  consisting  of  the  subgenera  Malachius,  Dasytes,  &c.  8cc. 

The  fourth  tribe  of  the  Malacodermi,  that  of  the  Clerii,  is  dis- 
tinguished by  the  ensemble  of  the  following  characters.  Two  of 
their  palpi  at  least  project  and  are  clavate.  The  mandibles  are  den- 
tated.  The  penultimate  joint  of  the  tarsi  is  bilobate,  and  the  first 
is  very  short  or  but  slightly  visible  in  several.  The  antennae  are 
sometimes  nearly  filiform  and  serrated,  and  at  others  insensibly  en- 
larged near  the  extremity.     The  body  is  usually  cylindrical,  the 


376  INSECTA. 

head  and  thorax  narrower  than  the  abdomen,  and  the  eyes  emargi- 
nated. 

Most  of  these  Insects  are  found  on  flowers,  the  remainder  on  the 
trunks  of  old  trees  or  in  dry  wood.  Such  of  the  larvae  as  are  known 
are  carnivorous. 

This  tribe  will  comprise  the  genus 

CiiERus,  Geoff. 
Now  divided  into  Cylidrus,  TH.llus,  Friocera,  &c.  &c. 

Clertjs  proper. 

The  maxillary  palpi  of  the  Cleri,  properly  so  called,  are  terminated  by  a 
compressed  joint  in  the  form  of  a  reversed  triangle;  the  last  of  those  that 
belong  to  the  labium,  wliich  are  larger  than  the  others,  is  securiform.  The 
antennal  club  is  hardly  longer  than  wide,  and  is  composed  of  crowded 
joints;  the  thu'd  is  longer  than  the  second.  The  maxillae  terminate  in  a 
projecting  and  fringed  lobe.     The  thorax  is  depressed  anteriorly. 

These  Insects  are  found  on  flowers;  their  larvse  devour  those  of  certain 
Bees. 

C.  apiarius.  Blue;  elylra  red;  traversed  by  three  bands  of  deep  blue, 
the  last  of  which  occupies  the  extremity.  The  larva  devours  that  of  our 
domestic  Bee,  and  does  much  injury  to  hives. 

C.  alvearius.  Almost  like  the  preceding,  but  with  a  bluish-black  spot  on 
the  scutel.  It  inhabits  the  nests  of  the  Mason  Bees — Osbiia — of  Reaumur, 
and  feeds  on  their  larvae. 

The  type  of  the  fifth  tribe  of  the  Malacodermi,  or  the  Ptiniores, 
consists  of  the  genus  Ptinus  of  Linnaeus,  and  of  some  other  genera 
depending  on,  or  which  most  closely  approach  it.  The  body  of  these 
Insects  is  of  a  tolerably  firm  consistence,  sometimes  almost  ovoid  or 
oval,  and  at  others  nearly  cylindrical,  but  generally  short  and  round- 
ed at  the  two  extremities.  The  head  is  nearly  globular  or  orbi- 
cular, and  almost  entirely  received  into  a  strongly  arched  or  vaulted 
thorax,  resembling  a  hood.  The  antennae  of  some  are  filiform,  or 
diminished  towards  the  end,  and  are  either  simple,  flabelliform,  pec- 
tinated, or  serrated;  those  of  others  terminate  suddenly  by  three 
larger  and  much  longer  joints.  The  mandibles  are  short,  thick,  and 
dentated  under  the  point.  The  palpi  are  very  short  and  terminated 
by  a  larger  and  almost  ovoid  joint,  or  like  a  reversed  triangle.  The 
tibia  are  not  dentated,  and  the  spurs  at  the  extremities  are  very  small. 
There  is  but  little  variety  in  their  colours,  which  are  always  dark. 
They  are  very  small.     When  touched  they  counterfeit  death,  lower 


COLEOPTERA.  377 

their  heads,  incline  their  antennae,  and  contract  their  feet;  in  this 
apparent  state  of  lethargy  they  remain  for  some  time.  Their  mo- 
tions are  generally  slow,  and  those  that  are  winged  rarely  take  to 
flight  to  escape.  Their  larva;  are  very  noxious  to  us,  and  bear  a 
great  resemblance  to  those  of  the  Scarabacides.  Their  body,  fre- 
quently curved  into  an  arc,  is  soft  and  whitish  j  the  head  and  feet  are 
brown  and  squamous.  'I'heir  mandibles  are  strong.  With  frag- 
ments of  various  substances,  which  they  detach  by  gnawing,  they 
Construct  a  shell  in  wiiich  they  become  nymphs.  Other  species  es- 
tablish their  domicil  in  the  country,  in  old  wood,  and  under  stones; 
their  habits  are  the  same. 

Such  are  the  characters  of  the  genua 

Ptinus,  Lin. 
In  some,  the  head  and  thorax,  or  the  anterior  half  of  the  body  is  narrower 
than  the  abdomen;  the  antennae  are  always  terminated  in  the  same  manner, 
simple  or  but  slightly  serrated,  and  at  least  almost  as  long-  as  the  body. 

The  antennae  of  the  true  Ptini  are  inserted  between  the  eyes,  which  are 
protuberant  or  convex.     Their  body  is  oblong. 

They  are  generally  found  in  houses,  and  chiefly  in  granaries  and  inhabit- 
ed places.  Their  larvae  destroy  our  herbaria  and  desiccated  specimens  of 
animals.  The  antennae  of  the  males  are  longer  than  those  of  the  females, 
and  in  several  species,  these  latter  are  apterous. 

P.  fur,  L.  One  line  and  a  half  in  length;  light  brown;  antennae  as  long 
as  the  body;  a  pointed  projection  on  each  side  of  the  thorax,  and  between 
them  two  others,  rounded  and  covered  with  a  yellowish  down;  two  trans- 
verse, greyish  bands  on  the  elytra,  formed  by  hairs. 

According  to  De  Geer,  it  feeds  on  Flies  and  other  dead  Insects  that  fall 
in  its  way.  The  larvae  are  very  injurious  to  herbaria  and  other  collections 
of  natural  history. 

The  remaining  subgenera  are  Gihbium,  Ptilinus,  &c.  We  may  more 
particularly  notice  the 

Anobium,  Fab. 

The  antennx  are  terminated  by  three  larger  or  longer  joints,  but  the  two 
penultimates  are  in  the  form  of  a  reversed  and  elongated  cone,  and  that  of 
the  end  is  oval  or  nearly  cylindrical;  they  consist  of  eleven  joints. 

Several  species  of  this  genus  inhabit  the  interior  of  our  houses,  where,  in 
their  larva  state,  they  are  very  noxious,  attacking  the  timbers,  furniture, 
books,  &.C.  and  piercing  little  round  holes  in  them  similar  to  those  made 
by  a  very  small  gimblet.  The  larvae  of  other  species  of  Anobium  attack 
flour,  wafers,  cabinets  of  Birds,  Insects,  &c. 

lioth  sexes  frequently  summon  each  other  by  reiterated  and  rapid  strokes 
2  X 


378  INSECTA. 

of  their  mandibles  against  the  wood  they  inhabit,  and  mutually  answer  the 
signal.  Such  is  the  cause  of  that  noise,  resembling  the  accelerated  tick  of  a 
watch,  which  is  so  often  heard,  and  which  is  superstitiously  called  the  death- 
watch. 

A.  tesselatum.  Fab.  Three  lines  in  length;  a  dead  dusky  brown,  with 
yellowish  spots  formed  by  hau's;  thorax  smooth?  elytra  not  striated. 

A.  periinax.  Blackish ;  thorax  with  a  yellowish  spot  at  each  posterior 
angle,  and  near  the  middle  of  its  base  a  compressed  eminence  divided  an- 
teriorly by  a  depression;  elytra  with  punctured  striae.  According  to  De 
Geer,  it  will  permit  itself  to  be  roasted  to  death  by  a  slow  fire,  rather  than 
exhibit  the  least  sign  of  life  when  it  is  seized. 
■  There  are  other  species. 

The  third  and  last  section  of  the  Serricornes,  forming  also  a  last 
tribe^  that  of  the  Xylotrogi,  is  distinguished  from  the  two  preced- 
ing ones,  as  we  have  already  stated,  by  the  entire  freedom  of  the 
head;  and  consists  of  the  genus 

■'" '^  ■'''^LyMEXYiiON,  Fab. 

.i  I'.y.rti'-    :  -/ 
Now  consisting  of  Mractoeerus,  Hylecoetus,  Lymexylon,  Cupes  and  Rhysodes. 


FAMILY  lY, 

CLAVICORNES(l). 

In  the  fourth  family  of  the  penlamerous  Coleoptera,  as  in  the  thirds 
we  find  four  palpi,  and  elytra  covering  the  superior  surface  of  the 
abdomen,  or  its  greater  portion;  but  it  differs  in  the  antennas,  which 
are  almost  always  tliicker  at  the  extremity,  that  even  frequently 
forms  a  perfoliaceous  or  solid  club;  they  are  longer  than  the  maxil- 
lary palpi,  and  their  base  is  exposed,  or  barely  covered.  The  legs 
are  not  natatory,  and  the  joints  of  the  tarsi,  at  least  those  of  the 
posterior  ones,  are  usually  entire. 

In  their  larva  state,  at  least,  they  feed  on  animal  matters. 

We  will  divide  this  family  into  two  sections:  the  common  charac- 
ters of  the  first  of  w"hich  are,  antennse  always  composed  of  eleven' 
joints,  longer  than  the  head,  not  forming  from  the  third  a  fusiform 
or  nearly  cylindrical  club,  and  their  second  joint  not  dilated  in  the 


(1)  Club -horned. 


COLEOPTERA.  379 

form  of  an  auricle;  last  joint  of  the  tarsi,  as  well  as  its  hooks,  of  a 
moderate  length,  or  small. 

These  Clavicornes  are  terrestrial,  while  those  of  our  second  sec- 
tion are  aquatic  or  shore  Insects,  thus  leading  to  the  Palpicornes, 
most  of  which  inhabit  water,  and  whose  antennae  never  consist  of 
more  than  nine  joints. 

The  first  section  will  comprise  several  small  tribes.  The  first, 
that  of  the  Palpatores,  in  a  natural  series,  should  be  placed  near 
the  Pselaphii  and  Brachelytra.  Their  antennae,  which  are,  at  least, 
as  long  as  the  head  and  thorax,  slightly  enlarge  towards  the  extre- 
mity, or  are  nearly  filiform;  their  two  first  joints  are  longer  than  the 
following  ones.  The  head  is  distinguished  from  the  thorax  by  an 
ovoid  strangulation. 

The  maxillary  palpi  project,  are  long  and  inflated  at  the  extremity. 
The  abdomen  is  large,  oval  or  ovoid,  and  embraced  laterally  by  the 
elytra.  The  legs  are  elongated,  thighs  clavate,  and  tarsial  joints 
entire. 

These  Insects  remain  on  the  ground,  under  stones  and  other  bo- 
dies. Some — the  Scydmaeni — frequent  wet  places.  We  will  unite 
them  in  a  single  genus,  that  of 

Mastigus. 

Joints  of  the  antenns  nearly  in  tibie  form  of  a  reversed  cone,  the  first  very- 
long  and  the  last  ones  hardly  thicker  than  the  others;  the  two  last  joints  of 
the  maxillary  palpi  forming  an  oval  club;  thorax  almost  ovoid;  abdomen 
oval. 

In  all  the  following  Clavicornes  the  head  is  generally  sunk  in  the 
thorax,  and  the  maxillary  palpi  are  never  at  the  same  time  so  much 
projected  and  clavate;  the  ensemble  of  their  physiognomy  also  ex- 
hibits other  differences. 

The  genus  Hister  forms  our  second  tribe,  which  we  will  name  the 
HiSTERoiDEs.  Here  the  four  posterior  legs  are  more  remote  from 
each  other  at  base  than  the  two  anterior,  a  character  alone  that 
distinguishes  this  tribe  from  all  others  of  the  same  family.  The  legs 
are  contractile,  and  the  outer  side  of  the  tibiae  is  dentated  or  spinous. 
The  antennae  are  always  geniculate,  and  terminated  by  a  solid  club 
composed  of  crowded  joints.  The  body  is  extremely  firm,  and  usually 
forms  a  square  or  parallelopiped;  the  praesternum  is  frequently  di- 
lated anteriorly,  and  the  elytra  are  as  often  truncated.     The  man- 


380  INSECTA. 

dibles  project,  are  strong,  and  frequently  unequal  as  to  size.  The 
palpi  are  almost  filiform,  or  slightly  enlarged  near  the  end,  and  ter^ 
minated  by  an  oval  or  ovoid  joint. 

These  animals  feed  on  cadaverous  matters  and  decomposing  ve^ 
getable  substances,  such  as  old  mushrooms,  &c.:  some  establish 
their  domicil  under  the  bark  of  trees.  Their  gait  is  slow,  and  their 
colour  a  brilliant  black  or  bronze.  Such  of  their  larvae  as  have 
been  observed^ — those  of  the  cadaverinus — feed  on  the  same  sub- 
stances as  the  perfect  Insect.  Their  body  is  glabrous,  soft,  and  of 
a  yellovi^ish  vi^hite,  the  head  and  first  segment  excepted,  the  dermis 
of  which  is  brown  or  reddish;  it  is  provided  with  six  short  legs,  and 
is  terminated  posteriorly  by  two  articulated  appendages,  and  an  anal 
and  tubular  prolongation;  the  squamous  plate  of  the  first  segment 
is  longitudinally  canaliculated. 

This  tribe,  as  we  have  already  stated,  will  consist  exclusively  of 
the  g.enu3 

HisTEK,  Lin. 

Now  consisting  ofHister  proper,  Hololepta,  Abrams,  &e. 

The  legs  of  the  other  Clavicornes  are  inserted  at  an  equal  distance 
from  each  other.  Those  in  which  these  organs  are  not  contractile, 
and  the  tarsi  at  most  can  only  be  flexed  on  the  tibias,  whose  mandi-- 
bles  are  most  commonly  salient  and  flattened  or  not  thick,  and  whose 
praesternum  is  never  dilated  anteriorly,  will  constitute  five  other 
tribes. 

In  the  third  tribe  of  this  family,  that  of  the  Silphales,  we  find 
five  distinct  joints  in  all  the  tarsi,  and  the  mandibles  terminating  in 
an  entire  point  without  emargination  or  fissure.  Tlie  antennae  ter- 
minate in  a  club  that  is  most  commonly  perfoliaceous  and  consisting 
of  from  four  to  five  joints.  The  internal  side  of  the  maxillse,  in 
most  of  them,  is  furnished  with  a  horny  tooth.  The  anterior  tarsj 
are  frequently  dilated,  at  least  in  the  males.  The  exterior  margin 
of  the  elytra  of  the  greater  number  is  marked  by  a  groove  with  ^ 
well  raised  border. 

This  tribe  is  composed  of  the  genus 

SiLPHA,  Lin, 
Now  variously  divided.     The  most  interesting'  of  these  genera  aj's 


COLEOPTERA.  381 

Necrophorus,  Fab. 

Their  instinctive  habit  of  burying'  the  bodies  of  Moles,  Mice,  and  other 
small  Quadrupeds,  have  procured  for  them  the  names  oi enterreurs  and  jsorfe- 
moris.  When  they  find  a  dead  animal  of  the  above  description,  they  work 
under  it  and  excavate  a  hole  of  sufficient  dimensions  to  contain  the  body, 
which  they  gradually  drag  into  it;  in  this  body  they  deposit  their  ova,  and 
thus  the  larvae  find  their  food  in  the  very  nidus  in  which  they  are  hatched. 
They  are  long,  and  of  a  greyish  white  colour;  the  anterior  segments  are 
■covered  superiorly  with  a  small  fulvous-brown,  squamous  plate,  and  the 
posterior  with  little  elevated  points.  They  are  furnished  with  six  feet  and 
strong'  mandibles.  When  about  to  pass  into  the  state  of  a  chrysalis,  they 
penetrate  deeply  into  the  earth,  where  they  construct  a  cell,  which  they 
line  with  a  viscid  substance. 

North  America  possesses  one,  the  N.  grandis,  which  surpasses  all  others 
in  size  and  beaut}'. 

SiLPHA,  Lin.  Fab. 
The  body  of  a  true  Silpha  is  almost  scutiform  and  depressed,  or  but 
slightly  elevated;  thorax  semicircular,  tnincated  or  very  obtuse  before;  ex- 
terior marg-in  of  the  elytra  strongly  recurved  and  canaUculated;  palpi  fili- 
form,  their  last  joint  almost  cylindrical,  and  in  several,  terminating  in  a 
point.  Most  of  them  live  in  carrion,  and  thus  diminish  the  quantity  of  its 
noxious  effluvia.  Some  chmb  on  plants,  and  particularly  on  the  stems  of 
wheat,  where  they  find  little  Helices  on  which  they  feed.  Others  remain 
on  high  trees  and  devour  caterpillars.  The  larvae  are  all  equally  active, 
live  in  the  same  manner,  and  frequently  in  large  societies.  They  bear  a 
great  resemblance  to  the  perfect  Insect.  Their  body  is  flattened,  and  con- 
sists of  twelve  segments,  with  acute  posterior  angles;  the  posterior  ex- 
tremity is  narrower  and  terminated  by  two  conical  appendag-es. 

Argtrtes,  Froeh. — Mycetophagus,  Fab. 
The  body  tolerably  thick,  convex,  and  arcuated  superiorly,  not  scutiform; 
thorax  somewhat  wider  than  long,   and  a  little  narrower  before;  exterior 
margin  of  the  elytra  inclined  and  not  canaUculated,  last  joint  of  the  maxil- 
lary palpi  thicker  and  ovoid. 

Certain  Clavicornes,  which  seem  to  approach  Argyrtes  in  their 
habits  and  other  characters,  but  whose  mandibles  are  cleft  or  biden- 
tated  at  the  extremity,  will  compose  our  fourth  tribe,  that  of  the 
ScAPHiDiTES.  Their  tarsi  consist  of  five  very  distinct  and  entire 
joints.  The  body  is  oval,  narrowed  at  both  ends,  arcuated  or  con- 
vex above,  and  thick  in  the  middle;  the  head  low,  and  received  pos- 
teriorly into  a  trapezoidal  thorax,  widest  behind,  the  margin  of  which 
^s  but  slightly  or  not  at  all  recurved.     The  antennse  are  usually  at 


382  INSECTA. 

least  as  long  as  the  head  and  thorax,  and  terminated  in  a  quadriar- 
ticulated  and  elongated  club.      The  last  joint  of  the  palpi  is  conical. 
The  legs  are  elongated  and  slender.     With  the  exception  of  some 
species — the  Cholevae — the  tarsi  are  nearly  similar  in  both  sexes. 
This  tribe  consists  of  the  genus 

SCAPHIDIUM. 
In  the  ti-ue  Scapludla,  the  five  last  joints  of  the  antennae  are  almost  globular, 
and  compose  the  club.  The  maxillary  palpi  project  but  little,  and  gradu- 
ally taper  to  a  point,  the  penultimate  joint  not  being  thicker  than  the  last 
at  their  junction.  The  body  is  navicelliform;  the  margin  of  the  thorax 
slightly  recurved,  and  the  elytra  truncated.  They  inhabit  mushrooms. 
But  few  species  are  known;  one  from  Cayenne  and  the  I'est  from  the  north 
of  Europe. 
The  subgenera  are  Choleva  and  Mylcechus. 

The  fifth  tribe,  or  that  of  the  Nitidulaei^te,  approximates  to  the 
fourth  in  the  scutiform  and  bordered  body,  but  the  mandibles  are 
bifid  or  emarginated  at  the  extremity;  the  tarsi  seem  to  consist  of 
but  four  joints,  the  first  and  last,  in  some,  being  only  visible  beneath, 
where  they  merely  form  a  slight  projection,  and  the  penultimate  in 
the  remainder  being  very  small,  in  the  form  of  a  knot,  enclosed  be- 
tween the  lobes  of  the  preceding  ones.  The  antennal  club  is  always 
perfoliaceous,  consists  of  three  or  four  joints,  and  is  usually  short  or 
but  little  elongated. 

The  palpi  are  short  and  filiform,  or  somewhat  thickest  at  the  ex- 
tremity. The  elytra  in  several  are  short  or  truncated.  Tl;e  legs 
are  but  slightly  elongated,  and  their  tibias  frequently  widened  at  the 
end;  the  tarsi  are  furnished  with,  hairs  or  pellets.  The  habitation 
of  these  Insects  varies  with  the  species;  they  are  found  on  flowers, 
in  mushrooms,  putrified  meat,  and  under  the  bark  of  trees.  They 
form  the  genus 

NiTIDULA. 

In  some,  the  antennal  club  consists  of  but  two  joints,  and  the  anterior  part 
of  the  head  projects  in  the  manner  of  a  semicircular  flattened  clypeus, 
covering  the  mandibles  and  other  parts  of  the  mouth. 

CotoBicrs,  Lat. 
In  this  and  the  following  subgenus,  the  tarsi,  from  the  point  where  they 
are  movable,  seem  to  consist  of  but  four  joints,  of  which  the  three  first, 
much  shorter  than  the  last,  are  entire,  and  simply  furnished  underneath 


COLEOPTERA.  383 

with  a  greater  or  smaller  number  of  hairs;  the  first,  as  in  several  of  the 
Cleri  of  Fabi-icius,  is  only  visible  underneath,  where  it  forms  a  little  projec- 
tion; it  is  also  pilose. 

The  remaining  subgenera  are  Thymalus,  Ips,  Cercus  and  Byturua. 

Those  that  compose  our  sixth  tribe,  that  of  the  Engidites,  ana- 
logous to  the  Nitidulariae  in  the  emargination  of  the  extremity  of 
their  mandibles,  are  distinguished  from  them  by  their  not  projecting, 
or  but  very  little  and  simply  on  the  sides,  beyond  the  labrurn. 
Their  body  is  oval  or  elliptical,  and  the  anterior  extremity  of  the 
head  slightly  extended  into  an  obtuse  or  truncated  point.  The  tarsi 
consist  of  five  distinct  joints,  entire,  and  at  most,  slightly  pilose  un- 
derneath; the  penultimate  is  somewhat  shorter  than  the  preceding 
one.  The  antennas  terminate  in  a  perfoliaceous  triarticulated  clubj 
the  elytra  completely  cover  the  abdomen,  and  the  palpi  are  some- 
what thicker  at  the  extremity.  Some  very  small  species  inhabit  the 
interior  of  houses,  and  are  frequently  found  on  windows. 

We  will  unite  them  all  in  a  single  genus,  that  of 

Dacne. 

Their  antenncc  terminate  abruptly  in  a  very  large  orbicular  or  ovoid  and 
compressed  club,  composed  of  crowded  joints,  of  which  the  middle  one  at 
least  is  much  wider  than  it  is  long;  the  third  is  longer  than  the  second  and 
fourth. 

We  now  come  to  certain  tribes  in  which  the  praesternum  is  fre- 
quently dilated  anteriorly  in  the  manner  of  a  chin-cloth,  and  which 
differ  from  the  preceding  ones  in  their  feet,  which  are  either  wholly 
or  partially  contractile;  the  tarsi  may  be  free,  but  the  tibiae  at  least 
can  be  flexed  on  the  thigh.  The  mandibles  are  short,  and  generally 
thick  and  dentated.  The  body  is  ovoid,  thick,  and  covered  with- 
deciduous  scales  or  hairs  of  various  colours.  The  antennae  are 
straight  and  usually  shorter  than  the  head  and  thorax.  The  head- 
is  plunged  into  the  thorax  as  far  as  the  eyes.  The  thorax  is  but 
slightly  or  not  at  all  bordered,  trapezoidal,  and  wider  posteriorly;- 
the  middle  of  its  posterior  margin  is  frequently  somewhat  prolonged 
or  lobale.  The  larvas  are  pilose,  and  mostly  feed  on  the  exuviae  or 
carcasses  of  animals.  Several  are  very  injurious  to  entomological 
collections. 

Those  then  in  which  the  legs  are  not  completely  retractile,  the 


384  INSECTA. 

tarsi  being  always  free,  and  the  tibiae  elongated  and  narrow,  form 
our  seventh  tribe,  that  of  the  Dermestini,  and  the  great  genus 

Deemestes. 

In  Dermestes,  properly  so  called,  the  antennse  are  similar,  or  differ  but  very 
slightly  in  both  sexes;  the  length  of  the  last  joint  is  never  much  greater' 
than  that  of  the  preceding  ones. 

Certain  species  do  great  injury  among  furs,  and  devastate  our  collections 
of  natural  history.  De  Geer  calls  them  dissectors,  and  in  fact  the  Dermestes 
lardarius  cuts  to  pieces  the  Insects  of  the  cabinet  into  which  it  has  pene- 
trated.    The  others  devour  the  dead  bodies  of  all  kinds  of  animals. 

D.  lardarius,  L.  Black;  base  of  the  elytra  cinereous  and  dotted  with 
black.  The  larva  is  elongated,  insensibly  tapered  from  head  to  tail,  of  a 
chesnut-brown  above,  white  beneath,  furnished  with  long  hairs  and  two 
squamous  horns  on  the  last  annulus. 

There  are  various  other  Dermestini  an-anged  in  different  genera,  such  as 
Mtagenus,  Megatoma,  Jlnthrenus,  &Cr 

Tlie  eighth  tribe,  that  of  the  Byrrhii,  differs  from  the  preceding 
in  the  perfect  contractility  of  the  legs;  the  tibiae  are  susceptible  of 
being  flexed  on  the  thighs,  and  the  tai-si  on  the  tibiae,  so  that  when 
thus  folded  and  pressed  against  the  body,  the  animal  seems  to  be 
inanimate  and  entirely  destitute  of  feet.  The  tibise  are  usually 
broad  and  compressed.     The  body  is  short  and  convex. 

This  tribe  is  chiefly  composed  of  the  genus 

Byrrhus,  Lin. 
The  mentura  of  the  ti-ue  Byrrhii  is  of  an  ordinary  size  and  interlocked  (at 
least  partially)  by  the  prsesternum,  whose  anterior  extremity  is  dilated. 

In  some,  the  antennae  enlarge  insensibly,  or  terminate  in  an  elongated 
club  formed  of  fi'om  five  to  six  joints. 

B.  pilula,  L.  From  three  to  four  lines  in  length;  black  beneath,-  blacfc- 
ish-bronze  or  soot-colour  and  silky  above,  with  little  black  spots  mingled 
with  lighter  ones  arranged  in  lines. 

All  the  Byrrhii  remain  on  the  ground  in  sandy  localities. 

It  is  impossible  to  describe  the  Clavicornesof  our  second  section, 
although  a  very  natural  one,  but  by  the  reunion  of  several  characters. 

The  body  of  these  Insects  is  generally  ovoid,  and  their  head 
plunged  to  the  eyes  in  a  trapezoidal  thorax,  with  a  recurved  lateral 
margin,  and  terminating  posteriorly  in  acute  angles;  the  praester- 
num  is  dilated  anteriorly  and  the  legs  are  imperfectly  contractile. 
Tliey  are  found  in  the  water,  under  stones  in  tlie  vicinity  of  shores,- 


COLEOPTERA.  385 

and  frequently  in  the  mud:  some  of  them — Dryops — are  allied  to 
the  Gyrini  by  the  structure  and  shortness  of  their  antennae. 

I  will  divide  this  section  into  two  tribes.  The  Insects  which  com- 
pose the  first  or  the  Acanthopoda  are  remarkable  for  their  flatten- 
ed and  tolerably  wide  tibiae,  armed  anteriorly  with  spines;  for  their 
short  quadriarticulated  tarsi,  the  hooks  of  which  are  of  the  usual 
size;  and  for  their  depressed  body.  The  praesternum  is  dilated. 
The  antennas  are  a  little  longer  than  the  head,  arcuated,  and  form- 
ed of  eleven  joints,  the  last  six  constituting  an  almost  cylindrical 
and  slightly  serrated  club;  the  second  is  short  and  not  dilated. 

This  tribe  is  composed  of  the  single  genus 

Heterocerus,  Bosc.  Fab. 
These  Insects  are  found  in  the  sand  or  mud,  along  the  borders  of  rivulets, 
marshes,  &c.,  issuing  from  their  holes  when  disturbed  by  the  trampling  of 
feet.  The  form  of  their  tibise  enables  them  to  turn  up  the  earth,  and  con- 
ceal themselves  in  it;  their  tarsi  can  be  flexed  upon  the  tibise.  There  also 
reside  their  larvje,  which  were  first  discovered  by  M.  Miger. 

The  second  tribe,  or  that  of  the  Macrodacttla,  comprises  Cla- 
vicornes  with  simple,  narrow  tibiae  and  long  tarsi,  all — one  genus 
excepted  (Georissus),  well  distinguished  from  every  other  of  the 
tribe,  by  its  antennas  of  nine  joints,  of  which  the  three  last  form  an 
almost  solid  club — composed  of  five  distinct  joints,  the  last  of  which 
is  large,  with  two  stout  terminal  hooks.  The  body  is  thick  or  con- 
vex. The  thorax  is  less  rounded,  and  most  commonly  terminates 
on  both  sides  in  acute  angles. 

The  principal  type  of  this  tribe  is  the  genus 

Dryops,  Oliv., 
In  Dryops  proper,  the  antennae,  shorter  than  the  head,  are  received  into  a 
cavity  situated  under  the  eyes,  and  are  almost  covered  by  the  second  joint, 
which  is  large,  dUated,  in  the  form  of  an  almost  triangular  palette,  and 
projects  in  the  manner  of  an  auricle,  whence  the  name  of  Dermeste  a  oreilleSf 
given  to  the  most  common  species  by  GeofFroy.  The  palpi  are  not  salient. 
There  are  three  subgenera:  viz.  Elmis,  Macronychus,  Georissus, 


2  Y 


386  INSECTA. 

FAMILY  V. 

PALPICORNES.(l) 

In  our  fifth  family  of  pentamerous  Coleoptera,  as  in  the  fourth, 
we  observe  antennae  terminating  in  a  club,  usually  perfoliaceous,  but 
consisting  of  nine  points  at  most  in  all,  and  inserted  under  the  late- 
ral and  projecting  edges  of  the  head;  they  are  never  much  longer 
than  the  latter  and  the  maxillary  palpi,  and  frequently  even  shorter 
than  the  last  mentioned  organs.  The  mentum  is  large  and  scuti- 
forra. 

The  body  is  usually  ovoid  or  hemispherical,  convex  or  arched. 
The  legs  in  several  are  adapted  for  natation,  and  then  consist  of  but 
four  very  distinct  joints,  or  of  five,  the  first  of  which  is  much  shorter 
than  the  second;  all  the  joints  are  entire. 

Those  in  which  the  legs  are  natatory,  the  first  joint  of  the  tarsi 
is  much  shorter  than  the  following  ones,  and  the  maxilte  are  en- 
tirely corneous,  will  form  our  first  tribe,  that  of  the  Hydrophilh, 
which  embraces  the  genus 

Hydrophiius,  Geofi". 

Linnaeus  merely  made  these  Insects  a  division  (the  first)  of  his  genus  Dytis- 
cus,  but  their  anatomy  is  essentially  different.  In  the  true  Hydrophiius  the 
sternal  spine  is  strongly  prolonged  behind.  The  last  joint  of  the  two  an- 
terior tarsi  of  the  males  is  dilated  in  the  form  of  a  triangular  palette.  The 
scutellum  is  large. 

The  larvx  resemble  a  sort  of  soft,  conical,  and  elongated  worm,  furnish- 
ed with  six  feet,  and  a  large  squamous  head,  more  convex  underneath  than 
above,  armed  with  strong  and  hooked  mandibles.  They  respire  by  the 
posterior  extremity  of  the  body,  are  very  voracious,  and  do  great  injury  to 
fish  ponds  by  devouring  the  spawn. 

H.  piceus.  Fab.  An  inch  and  a  half  long;  oval;  of  a  blackish-brown, 
polished,  or  as  if  covered  with  a  varnish;  antennal  club  partly  reddish;  some 
slightly  marked  strix  on  the  elytra,  the  posterior  exti'emity  of  which  is 
rounded  laterally,  and  prolonged  into  a  small  tooth  at  the  internal  angle. 

It  swims  and  flies  well,  but  walks  badly.  When  held  loosely  in  the  hand, 
its  sternal  spine  sometimes  inflicts  a  wound. 

The  extremity  of  the  female  is  provided  with  two  fusi,  by  means  of 
which  she  constructs  an  ovoid  cocoon,  sui-mounted  with  a  point,  resembling 


(1)  Palpi-horned. 


COLEOPTERA.  387 

an  arcuated  brown  horn.  Its  external  tissue  is  a  gummy  paste,  which, 
though  fluid  at  first,  subsequently  hardens,  and  becomes  impervious  to 
water.  The  ova  it  contains  are  an-anged  symmetrically,  and  kept  in  situ 
by  a  sort  of  white  down.     These  cocoons  float  on  the  water. 

The  larva  is  depressed,  blackish  and  rugose,  and  has  the  faculty  of  throw- 
ing back  its  brown,  smooth,  round  head.  This  enables  it  to  capture  the 
little  MoUusca  which  navigate  the  surface  of  the  water,  its  back  serving  as 
a  point  d'appui  or  anvil  on  which  it  mashes  the  shell  in  order  to  devour  the 
animal  it  contains.  The  body  of  these  larvse  becomes  flabby  as  soon  as  they 
are  caught.  They  swim  with  great  facility,  and  are  provided  with  two 
fleshy  appendages  which  serve  to  maintain  them  on  the  surface  of  the  water, 
head  downwards,  when  they  come  tliere  to  respii'e.  According  to  M.  Miger, 
the  larvse  of  other  Hydrophilii  are  deprived  of  these  appendages,  and  neither 
swim  nor  suspend  themselves  like  those  of  which  we  have  been  speaking. 
The  females  of  these  species  swim  with  difiiculty,  and  cany  their  ova  under 
the  abdomen  enclosed  in  a  silken  web. 

There  are  many  other  genera  of  Hydrophilians,  such  as  Hydrochus,  Odhe- 
bius,  Sperckeus,  &c.,diflering  in  form,  the  arrangement  of  the  antennae,  &c. 

Our  second  tribe,  or  the  SpHiERiDioTA,  consists  of  terrestrial 
Palpicornes,  with  tarsi  composed  of  five  very  distinct  joints,  the  first 
of  which  is  at  least  as  long  as  the  second.  The  maxillary  palpi  are 
somewhat  sliorter  than  the  antennas,  with  the  third  joint  longer,  in- 
flated, and  in  the  form  of  a  reversed  cone.  The  maxillary  lobes  are 
membranous. 

The  body  is  nearly  hemispherical,  the  posterior  extremity  of  the 
prsBsternum  is  prolonged  into  a  point,  and  the  tibias  are  spinous; 
those  that  are  anterior  are  palmated  or  digitated  in  the  large  spe- 
cies. The  antennee  always  consist  of  nine  joints,  or  of  eight,  if  the 
last  be  considered  as  an  appendage  of  the  penultimate. 

These  Insects  are  small,  and  inhabit  cow-dung  and  other  matters; 
certain  species  are  found  near  the  shores  of  rivers,  &.c.  They 
compose  the  genus 

Sph^ridium,  Fab. 
From  which,  however,  we  must  separate  several  species,  a  division  already 
effected  by  Olivier.     Dr  Leach  only  considers  as  such  those  in  which  the 
anterior  tarsi  of  the  males  are  dilated.     Such  is 

S.  4-maculafum.  It  is  of  a  shining  black  and  smooth;  the  scutellum  is 
elongated,  and  the  legs  are  very  spinous;  a  blood-red  spot  at  the  base  of 
each  elytron,  and  their  extremity  reddish  In  some  individuals  these  spots 
diminish  or  disappear. 


388  INSECTA. 

FAMILY  VI. 

LAMELLICORNES.(l) 

In  our  sixth  and  last  family  of  pentamerous  Coleoptera,  we  find 
the  antennas  inserted  into  a  deep  fossula  under  the  lateral  margin 
of  the  head;  they  are  always  short,  usually  consist  of  nine  or  ten 
joints,  and  are  always  terminated  in  a  club  usually  composed  of  the 
three  last,  which  are  lamellar,  sometimes  flabelliform  or  disposed 
like  the  leaves  of  a  book,  opening  and  closing  in  a  similar  way, 
sometimes  concentrically  contorted  and  fitting  in  each  other,  the 
first  or  inferior  then  being  semi-infundibuliform  and  receiving  the 
others,  and  sometimes  arranged  perpendicular  to  the  axis  and  form- 
ing a  sort  of  comb. 

The  body  is  generally  ovoid  or  oval,  and  thick.  The  exterior 
side  of  the  two  anterior  tibiae  is  dentated,  and  the  joints  of  the  tarsi, 
with  the  exception  of  those  of  some  males,  are  entire  and  without 
brush  or  pellet  beneath. 

The  anterior  extremity  of  the  head  most  commonly  projects  or  is 
dilated  in  the  manner  of  an  epistoma.  The  mentum  is  usually  large, 
covers  the  ligula  or  is  incorporated  with  it,  and  bears  the  palpi. 
The  mandibles  of  several  are  membranous,  a  character  observed  in 
no  other  coleopterous  Insects.  The  males  frequently  difier  from 
the  females,  either  by  prominences  on  the  thorax  or  head  in  the 
form  of  horns  or  tubercles,  or  by  the  largeness  of  their  mandibles. 

This  family  is  very  numerous,  and  with  respect  to  the  size  of  the 
body,  the  variety  of  forms  exhibited  in  the  head  and  thorax,  sexually 
considered,  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the  order,  and  frequently 
also  as  regards  the  species,  which  in  their  perfect  state  live  upon 
vegetable  substances,  by  the  splendour  of  the  metallic  colours  with 
which  they  are  ornamented.  Most  of  the  other  species,  however, 
feeding  on  decomposed  vegetable  aliment,  such  as  dung,  tan,  &c., 
are  usually  of  one  uniform  black  or  brown  hue.  Some  of  the  Co- 
prophagi,  however,  do  not  yield  even  in  this  respect  to  the  former. 
They  are  all  furnished  with  wings,  and  their  gait  is  heavy. 

The  body  of  the  larvae  is  long,  almost  semicylindrical,  soft,  fre- 
quently rugose,  whitish,  and  divided  into  twelve  annuli,  with  six 


(1)  Horns  foliated. 


COLEOPTERA.  389 

squamous  feet;  the  head  is  squamous  and  armed  with  stout  mandi- 
bles. Each  side  of  the  body  is  furnished  with  nine  stigmata;  its 
posterior  extremity  is  thicker,  rounded,  and  almost  always  doubled 
under  it,  so  that  the  back  being  arcuated  or  convex,  the  animal  can- 
not extend  itself  in  a  straight  line,  crawls  badly  on  a  level  surface, 
and  falls  backwards  or  on  its  side  every  instant.  An  idea  of  their 
form  may  be  obtained  from  that  of  the  larva,  so  well  known  to  gar- 
deners by  the  name  of  ver  blanc^  which  is  that  of  the  Melolontha 
vulgar  is(l). 

Some  of  them  require  three  or  four  years  to  become  pupae;  they 
construct  in  their  place  of  residence  an  ovoid  shell,  or  one  resem- 
bling an  elongated  ball,  composed  of  earth  or  the  debris  of  substan- 
ces they  have  gnawed,  the  particles  of  which  are  cemented  by  a 
glutinous  matter  produced  from  their  body.  Their  aliment  consists 
of  the  dung  of  various  animals,  mould,  tan,  and  roots  of  vegetables, 
(frequently  such  as  are  necessary  to  Man,)  of  which  they  sometimes 
destroy  immense  quantities,  to  the  great  loss  of  the  cultivator  of 
the  soil. 

We  will  divide  this  family  into  two  tribes.  In  the  first  or  that  of 
the  ScAKABJEiDES,  wc  find  the  antennae  terminating  in  a  foliaceous 
and  generally  plicatile  club,  and  composed  in  others  of  joints  that 
fit  into  each  ether,  either  in  the  form  of  a  reversed  cone  or  nearly 
globular.  The  mandibles  are  identical  or  almost  similar  in  both 
sexes,  but  the  head  and  thorax  of  the  males  exhibit  peculiar  projec- 
tions or  eminences;  sometimes  also  their  antennae  are  more  devel- 
oped.    This  tribe  corresponds  with  the  genus 

ScARAB^us,  Lin. 
This  genus  is  now  divided  into  several  small  sections  established  on  charac- 
ters drawn  from  the  organs  of  manducation,  antennje,  and  habits. 

The  CopROPUAGi  or  the  Scarab seides  of  our  first  section,  usually  have 
their  antennae  composed  of  nine  joints,  and  of  eight  in  the  others,  the  three 
last  forming  the  club. 

Among  the  most  interesting  of  the  various  genera  which  composed  this 
section  is  the 

Ateuchus,  Web.  Fab., 
Two  species  of  Ateuchus  were  worshipped  by  the  ancient  Egyptians, 
and  formed  a  part  of  their  system  of  hieroglyphics.     They  are  sculptured  in 


(1)  Our  common  ^rubs,  which  are  so  abundant  in  dung-hills,  gardens, 
&c.,  are  larva  of  various  species  of  Lamellicornes. 


390  INSECTA. 

various  positions,  and  sometimes  of  g-igantic  dimensions,  on  all  their  monu- 
ments. They  were  also  figured  separately  and  on  the  most  precious 
materials,  such  as  gold?  they  used  them  as  seals  and  as  amulets,  which  were 
suspended  to  the  neck  and  buried  with  the  mummies.  The  Insect  itself 
has  been  found  in  some  of  their  coffins.     The 

A.  sacer;  which  is  found  not  only  in  all  Egypt,  but  in  the  south  of  France, 
in  Spain,  Italy,  and  the  south  of  Europe  generally,  has  hitherto  been 
considered  the  object  of  this  superstitious  distinction;  but  another  species 
discovered  in  Sennar  by  M.  Caillaud  of  Nantes,  appears  from  its  more  bril- 
liant colours,  and  the  country  in  which  it  is  found,  the  original  residence  of 
the  Egyptians,  to  have  first  attracted  their  attention. 

The  remaining  genera  are  Sisyphus,  CoproMus,  Oniticellus,  Copris proper, 
Aphodius,  &c.  &c. 

The  Ahenicoli,  with  the  Aphodii  and  Psammodii,  are  the  only  ones  whose 
elytra  entirely  cover  the  posterior  extremity  of  the  abdomen,  so  that  the  ab- 
domen is  completely  concealed;  but  they  are  distinguished  from  the  latter 
by  several  characters.  The  labrum  is  coriaceous,  and  most  frequently  juts 
out  beyond  the  epistoma.  The  mandibles  are  corneous,  and  usually  salient 
and  arcuated.  Tlie  terminal  lobe  of  the  maxillae  is  straight,  and  has  no  inward 
curve.  The  third  and  last  joint  of  the  labial  palpi  is  always  very  distinct, 
and  at  least  almost  as  long  as  the  preceding  one.  With  some  few  exceptions 
their  antennae  are  composed  of  ten  or  eleven  joints. 

These  Insects  make  deep  holes  in  the  ground,  fly  particularly  during  the 
evening,  after  sun-set,  and  counterfeit  death  when  seized. 

The  Xxiopiiiti  comprise  the  Geotrupes  of  Fabricius,  and  some  of  his 
Cetonise.  Here  the  scutellum  is  always  distinct,  and  the  elytra  do  not 
cover  the  posterior  extremity  of  the  abdomen.  The  tarsial  crotchets  of  seve- 
ral are  unequal.  The  antennae  always  consist  of  ten  joints,  the  three  last 
forming  a  foliaceous  club,  of  which  the  intermediate  leaflet  is  never  com- 
pletely concealed  or  encased  by  the  two  others.  The  labrum  is  not  saUent, 
and  its  anterior  extremity  at  most  is  exposed.  The  mandibles  are  entirely 
corneous,  and  jut  out  beyond  the  sides  of  the  head.  The  maxUlae  are  cor- 
neous or  of  a  sohd  consistence,  straight  and  commonly  dentated.  The 
ligula  is  covered  by  an  ovoid  or  triangular  mentum  narrowed  and  truncated 
at  its  extremity,  the  angles  of  which  are  frequently  dilated.  All  the  legs 
are  inserted  at  an  equal  distance  from  each  other.     Here  we  find 

ScARAEJEus  proper, — Geotrupes,  Fab. 

The  body  is  thick  and  convex,  and  the  outer  side  of  the  mandibles  sinuous 
or  dentated.  The  equatorial  countries  of  both  hemispheres  produce  very 
remarkable  species  of  this  subgenus. 

S.  Hercules,  L.  Five  inches  long;  black;  elytra  greenish-grey  mottled 
with  black:  a  recurved  and  dentated  horn  on  the  head  of  the  male,  and  a 
second  one,  long,  projecting  and  pilose  beneath,  with  a  tooth  on  each  side 
of  the  thorax.     South  America.     Some  travellers  call  it  the  Mouche  comue. 

This  section  also  includes  Philcurus,  Rutela,  Orydes,  &c.  &c. 


COLEOPTERA.  391 

The  PiiTiLOPHAGi  consist  of  Scarabjeides  whose  mandibles  are  covered 
above  by  the  epistoma,  and  concealed  beneath  by  the  maxillse;  their  outer 
side  is  alone  exposed,  without  however  overlapping;  their  outer  side  pre- 
sents none  of  the  sinuses  or  dentations  observed  there  in  Rutela  and  other 
analogous  subgenera.  The  anterior  edge  of  the  labrum  is  exposed;  it  is  some- 
times in  the  form  of  a  reversed  and  wide  triangle,  and  most  frequently  trans- 
versely laminiform,  and  emarginated  in  the  middle.  The  number  of  the 
antennal  joints  is  not  constant,  and  varies  from  eight  to  ten  :-the  same  remark 
applies  to  those  of  the  club,  and  in  several,  with  respect  to  this,  the  two  sexes 
differ  greatly.  The  ligula  is  entirely  covered  by  the  mentum,  or  incorpor- 
ated witli  its  anterior  face,  and  the  elytra  are  completely  joined  along  the 
whole  of  the  suture,  characters  which  distinguish  these  Insects  from  those 
of  the  fifth  section. 

In  the  AiTTHOBii  the  antenn2e  are  composed  of  nine  or  ten  joints,  the 
three  last  of  which  alone  form  the  club  in  both  sexes.  The  lobe  terminat- 
ing the  maxillse  is  frequently  almost  membranous,  silky,  penicilliform,  cori- 
aceous, and  dentated  along  the  inner  edge  in  others.  The  labrum  and 
mandibles  are  more  or  less  soUd  in  proportion  as  they  are  more  or  less  ex- 
posed.    The  Anthobii  Hve  on  flowers  or  leaves. 

Some  of  these  Insects  inhabit  the  north  of  Africa  and  other  countries 
situated  on  the  Mediterranean;  most  of  the  others  are  found  in  the  higher 
portions  of  western  Asia. 

The  genera  that  compose  this  section  are  Glaphyrus,  JLmphicoma,  Jin- 
ihipna,  &c. 

The  sixth  and  last  section  of  the  Scarabaeides,  that  of  the  Meuto- 
PHiti,  is  composed  of  Insects  in  which  the  body  is  depressed,  most  com- 
monly oval,  brilliant,  and  without  horns,  and  the  thorax  is  trapeziform,  or 
nearly  orbicular;  an  axillary  part,  in  the  greater  number,  occupies  the  space 
comprised  between  the  posterior  angles  and  the  exterior  of  the  base  of  the 
elytra.  The  sternum  is  frequently  extended  into  a  point  or  projecting 
horn.  The  hooks  of  the  tarsi  are  equal  and  simple.  The  antennae  consist 
of  ten  joints,  the  three  last  of  which  form  a  club,  always  foliaceous.  The 
labrum  and  mandibles  are  concealed,  laminiform,  flattened,  and  membran- 
ous, or  nearly  so.  The  maxUlae  terminate  in  a  silky,  penicilUform  lobe 
without  horny  teeth.  The  mentum  is  commonly  ovoid,  truncated  superiorly, 
or  almost  square,  and  the  middle  of  the  superior  margin  more  or  less  con- 
cave or  emarginate.     The  ligula  is  not  salient. 

The  larvae  hve  in  rotten  wood.  The  perfect  Insect  is  found  on  flowers, 
and  frequently  on  trunks  of  trees,  that  give  out  a  fluid  which  they  suck. 

This  section  is  susceptible  of  being  separated  into  three  principal  divi- 
sions, the  first  of  which  corresponds  to  the  genus  Trichius,  Fab.;  the  second 
to  that  of  Goliath,  Lam.;  and  the  third  to  Cetonia,  Fab.,  but  reduced  and 
simplified. 

In  the  first — Trichides — the  mentum  is  either  isometrical,  or  longer  than 
wide,  and  leaves  the  maxillae  exposed.     It  comprises  the 


392  INSECTA. 

TmcHius,  Fab. 

T.  nobilis.  About  an  inch  long;  golden-gi-een  above;  cupreous  with 
yellowish-grey  hairs  beneath.     On  umbelliferous  plants. 

The  female  of  the  T".  Aemip^erus  and  those  of  some  other  species  of  North 
America  are  remarkable  for  the  horny  ovipositor  at  the  posterior  ex- 
tremity of  their  abdomen,  by  which  they  effect  a  lodgement  for  tlieir  ova. 

These  species  are  generally  found  on  the  ground,  where  they  move  very 
slowly.     There  are  two  other  genera,  Platygenia  and  Cremasiocheilus. 

The  second  division,  GoUathides,  is  distinguished  from  the  preceding  by 
the  mentum,  which  is  much  longer,  wider,  and  covers  the  maxilla;. 

Goliath,  Lam.  Kirb. — Cetonia,  Fab.  Oliv. 

A  subgenus  which,  according  to  M.  de  Lamarck,  is  composed  of  large 
and  beautiful  species,  some  of  which  inhabit  Africa  and  the  East  Indies,  and 
the  others,  tropical  America.  Messrs  Lepeletier  and  Serville  have  separa- 
ted the  latter  from  it  under  the  generic  apptUation  of  IifCA.  The  epimera 
is  not  prominent.  The  inner  sides  of  the  thighs  of  the  two  anterior  legs  are 
furnished  at  base  with  a  tooth  and  an  emargination.  The  middle  of  the 
superior  mai-gin  of  the  mentum  is  strongly  emarginated;  this  part  in  the 
true  Goliaths  presents  four  lobes  or  teeth,  two  superior  and  the  two  others 
lateral.  The  labial  palpi  are  inserted  on  its  edges  in  the  emarginations  of 
these  latter  lobes.     All  the  known  species  are  large. 

In  the  third  division  of  the  Melitophili,  a  section  corresponding  to  the 
family  of  the  Cetoniidse,  Mac  Leay,  the  sternum  is  prolonged  more  or  less 
into  an  obtuse  point  between  the  second  pair  of  legs;  the  epimera  or  axil- 
lary piece  is  always  apparent  above,  and  occupies  all  the  space  that  sepa- 
rates the  posterior  angles  of  the  thorax  from  the  base  of  the  elytra;  the  tho- 
rax usually  becomes  widened  posteriorly,  and  has  the  form  of  a  triangle 
truncated  anteriorly  or  at  the  point.  The  mentum  is  never  transversal,  and 
its  superior  edge  is  more  or  less  emarginated  in  the  middle.  The  terminal 
lobe  of  the  maxillje  is  silky  or  penicilliform.  The  body  is  almost  ovoid,  and 
depressed. 

This  division  comprises  the  genus 

Cetonia,  Fab., 

Or  what  we  commonly  term  Goldbeaters.  Those  of  Europe  are  pro- 
vided with  a  scutellum  of  an  ordinary  size.     Such  are  the 

C.  aurata.  Nine  hues  in  length;  brilliant  golden-green  above;  cupreous- 
red  beneath;  white  spots  on  the  elytra.  Common  on  flowers,  and  frequently 
on  those  of  the  Rose  and  Elder. 

In  the  second  tribe  of  the  Lamellicornes  or  the  Ltjcanides,  so 
called  from  the  genus  Lucanus  of  Linnaeus,  the  antennal  club  is 
composed  of  leaflets  or  teeth  arranged  perpendicularly  to  its  axis  in 
the  manner  of  a  comb.     These  organs  always  consist  of  ten  joints, 


COLEOPTERA.  393 

the  first  of  which  is  usually  much  the  longest.  The  mandibles  are 
always  corneous,  most  commonly  salient  and  larger,  and  even  very 
different  in  the  males.  The  maxillae,  in  most  of  them,  are  termi- 
nated by  a  narrow,  elongated  and  silky  lobe;  those  of  others  are 
entirely  corneous  and  dentated.  The  ligula  in  the  greater  number 
is  formed  of  two  small  silky  pencils  projecting  more  or  less  beyond 
an  almost  semi-circular  or  square  mentum.  The  anterior  legs  are 
most  frequently  elongated,  and  their  tibiae  dentated  along  the  whole 
of  the  outer  side.  The  tarsi  terr)iinate  by  two  equal  and  simple 
hooks  with  a  little  appendage  terminated  by  two  setae  between  them. 
The  elytra  cover  the  whole  of  the  abdomen  above. 

We  will  divide  it  into  two  sections,  corresponding  to  the  genera 
Lucanus  and  Passalus  of  Olivier. 

In  the  first  we  find  the  antennae  strongly  geniculate,  glabrous  or 
but  slightly  pilose;  the  labrum  very  small  or  confounded  with  the 
epistoma;  maxillae  terminated  by  a  membranous  or  coriaceous,  very 
silky,  pencilliform  lobe  without  teeth,  or  at  most  with  but  one;  and 
a  ligula  either  entirely  concealed  or  incorporated  with  the  mentum, 
or  divided  into  two  narrow,  elongated,  silky  lobes  extending  more 
or  less  beyond  the  mentum.  The  scutellum  is  situated  between  the 
elytra. 

The  first  section  will  form  the  genus 

Lire  ANUS. 

The  larva  of  the  L.  cervus,  which  inhabits  the  interior  of  the  Oak  for  seve- 
ral years  previous  to  its  final  metamorphosis,  is  considered  as  the  Cossus  of 
the  Romans,  or  that  verminiform  animal  which  they  regarded  as  a  delicious 
article  of  food. 

L.  cervus,  L.  (The  Stag-Beetle).  The  male  two  inches  in  length,  and 
larger  than  the  female;  black,  with  brown  elytra;  head  wider  than  the  body; 
mandibles  very  large,  arcuated,  with  three  very  stout  teeth;  two  of  which 
are  at  the  end  and  diverge,  the  other  is  in  the  inner  side,  all  furnished  with 
small  ones.  The  female,  called  Boe,  has  a  narrower  head  and  much  smaller 
mandibles.  It  flies  at  night  in  the  heat  of  summer.  Its  size  and  mandibles 
vary.  It  is  to  one  of  these  varieties  that  we  must  refer  the  Lucane  chevre  of 
Olivier,  or  the  L.  capreolus  of  Fabricius.  The  Lucanus,  so  called  by  Lin- 
nxus,  is  a  species  from  North  America,  and  very  distinct  from  the  preceding. 

The  subgenera  are  Sinodendron,  JEsalus,  Lamprima,  &c. 

The  Lucanides  of  our  second  section  have  their  antennae  simply 
arcuated,  or  but  slightly  geniculate  and  pilose;  the  labrum  always 
2  Z 


394  INSECTA. 

exposed,  crustaceous,  and  transversal;  the  mandibles  strong  and 
much  dentated,  but  without  any  very  remarkable  sexual  difference; 
the  maxillae  entirely  corneous,  with  at  least  two  strong  teeth;  the 
ligula  equally  corneous  or  very  hard,  situated  in  a  superior  emargi- 
nation  of  the  mentum,  and  terminated  by  three  points;  the  abdomen 
pediculated,  presenting  the  scutellum  above,  and  separated  from 
the  thorax  by  a  strangulation  of  considerable  interval.  They  form 
the  genus 

Passaltjs,  Fab. 
Restricted  by  M.  Mac  Leay  to  those  species  in  which  the  club  of  the  anten- 
nae consists  of  but  three  joints,  where  the  labrum  forms  a  transversal  square, 
and  the  maxillse  have  three  strong  terminal  teeth,  and  two  on  the  inner 
side  in  place  of  the  anterior  lobe. 

These  Insects  are  foreign  to  Europe,  and  as  it  would  appear,  to  Africa, 
being  chiefly  found  in  the  eastern  parts  of  Asia,  and  particularly  in  America. 
Madame  Merian  says,  that  the  larva  of  the  species  figured  by  her  lives  on 
the  roots  of  the  sweet  potato.  The  perfect  Insect  is  not  uncommon  in  the 
sugar-houses. 

In  the  second  general  section  of  the  Coleoptera,  or  the  Hetero- 
MEEA,  we  find  five  joints  in  the  four  first  tarsi,  and  one  less  in  the 
two  last.     They  all  feed  on  vegetable  matters. 

In  some,  where  the  elytra  are  generally  solid  and  hard,  and  the 
hooks  of  the  tarsi  are  almost  always  simple,  the  head  is  ovoid  or 
oval,  susceptible  of  being  received  posteriorly  into  the  thorax,  or 
sometimes  narrowed  behind,  but  not  abruptly,  and  without  a  neck 
at  its  base.  Many  of  these  Heteromera  avoid  the  light.  This  divi- 
sion will  comprise  the  three  following  families. 

FAMILY  I. 

MELASOMA. 

This  family  consists  of  unmixed  black  or  cinereous  coloured  In- 
sects, (from  which  is  derived  the  name  of  the  division,)  mostly 
apterous,  and  frequently  v^ith  soldered  elytra.  Their  antennse, 
entirely  or  partly  granose,  almost  of  equal  thickness  throughout  or 
slightly  inflated  at  the  extremity,  and  the  third  joint  wholly  elongated, 
are  inserted  under  the  projecting  edges  of  the  head.  The  mandi- 
bles are  bifid  or  emarginated  at  the  extremity;  the  inner  side  of  their 


COLEOPTERA.  395 

maxillae  is  furnished  with  a  corneous  tooth  or  hook,  all  the  joints  of 
the  tarsi  are  entire,  and  the  eyes  oblong  and  but  very  slightly  pro- 
minent, a  circumstance  which,  according  to  M.  Marcel  de  Serres, 
indicates  their  nocturnal  habits.  Almost  all  these  Insects  live  on 
the  ground,  either  in  sand,  or  under  stones,  and  frequently  in  cel- 
lars, stables,  and  other  dark  places  about  our  habitations. 

Our  first  division  of  this  family,  wliich  in  the  Linnasan  system 
forms  the  genus  Tenebrio,  is  founded  on, the  presence  or  absence 
of  wings. 

Of  those  which  are  deprived  of  these  organs,  and  in  which  the 
elytra  are  generally  soldered,  some  have  the  palpi  almost  filiform, 
or  terminated  by  a  moderately  dilated  joint,  and  do  not  form  a  dis- 
tinctly securiform  or  triangular  club.  They  will  compose  a  first 
tribe,  that  of  the  Pimeliari^,  so  named  from  the  genus 

PiMELIA,  Fab. 
These  Heteromera  are  proper  to  the  countries  situated  round  the  basin  of 
the  Mediterranean,  to  western  and  southern  Asia,  and  to  Africa.  They 
are  not  found  in  India,  or  at  least  none  have  as  yet  been  discovered  there. 
The  Pimeliarise  consist  of  numerous  g-enera,  the  chief  of  which  are,  Ero- 
diuSf  Zophosis,  Tentyria,  Akis,  Tagenia,  &c. 

The  second  tribe  of  the  Melasoma,  that  of  the  Blapsides,  re- 
ceives its  denomination  from  the  genus  Blaps  of  Fabricius. 

The  maxillary  palpi  terminate  by  a  manifestly  securiform  or  tri- 
angular joint.     This  tribe  is  formed  of  a  single  genus,  that  of 

Blaps. 
In  Blaps  properly  so  called,  the  thorax  is  almost  square  and  plane,  or  but 
slightly  convex.  The  abdomen  is  oval,  truncated  transversely  at  base,  and 
more  or  less  elongated.  The  elytra  of  most  of  them  are  naiTov/ed  and  pro- 
longed into  a  point,  those  of  the  males  especially.  The  third  joint  of  the 
antennx  is  cylindrical  and  much  longer  than  the  following  ones;  the  latter, 
or  at  least  the  three  antepenultimate  ones,  are  granose;  the  last  is  ovoid  and 
short. 

B.  laevigata.  Fab-  This  species  might  constitute  a  particular  subgenus. 
Its  body  is  much  shorter  than  that  of  the  others,  and  extremely  convex  or 
gibbous.  The  antennx  are  granose  from  the  fourth  joint.  The  anterior 
tibiae  terminate  in  a  stout  point  or  spine  formed  by  a  spur. 

It  is  stated  by  Fabricius  that  the  Turkish  women  inhabiting  Egypt,  where 
the  Insect  is  very  common,  eat  the  Blaps  sulcata,  cooked  with  butter,  in 
order  to  become  fat.  The  same  author  also  says  that  it  is  used  as  a  remedy 
for  the  head-ach,  and  the  sting  of  a  Scorpion. 


396  IXSECTA. 

The  remaining  Blapsides  are  ^stributed  under  various  genera,  such  as 
Gonopus,  Asida,  Pedinus,  Blaptinus,  &c. 

We  now  come  to  Melasoma,  provided  with  wings.  Their  body 
is  usually  oval  or  oblong,  depressed  or  but  slightly  elevated;  their 
thorax  square  or  trapezoidal,  and  its  posterior  extremity  as  wide  as 
the  abdomen.  The  palpi  are  larger  at  the  extremity;  the  last  joint 
of  the  maxillary  palpi  has  the  figure  of  a  reversed  triangle,  or  is  se- 
curiform; the  mentum  is  but  slightly  extended  in  width,  and  leaves 
the  base  of  the  maxillas  exposed. 

These  Insects  compose  the  third  and  last  tribe  of  the  Melasoma, 
that  of  the  Tenebkionites,  formed  of  the  single  genus 

Tenebeio, 
As  originally  ari'anged  by  Fabricius,  and  to  which  we  will  annex  his  Opa- 
trum  and  Orthocera;  they  will  serve  for  types  of  as  many  particular  divisions. 

1.  Those  in  which  the  body  is  oval;  the  thorax  nearly  trapezoidal,  arcu- 
ated laterally,  or  forming  a  semioval,  truncated  anteriorly,  wider  than  the  ab- 
domen, at  least  at  its  posterior  margin,  but  slightly  or  not  at  all  bordered; 
in  which  the  maxillary  palpi  terminate  by  a  securiform  joint  or  one  of  an 
analogous  figure,  and  where  the  antennae  insensibly  enlarge. 

Here  we  have  Crypticus  and  Opatrum. 

2.  Those  in  which  the  body  is  narrow  and  elongated,  almost  of  the  same 
width  posteriorly  or  wider;  where  the  thorax  is  nearly  square,  and  at  least 
almost  as  long  as  it  is  broad,  and  where  the  antenna  form  a  thick  club,  or 
are  abruptly  dilated  at  the  extremity. 

To  this  division  belong  Corticus,  Orthocerus,  Toxicum,  &c. 

3.  Those  in  which  the  body  is  equally  narrow  and  elongated,  and  the 
thorax  almost  square,  but  where  the  antennx  are  of  the  ordinary  thickness, 
and  are  not  abruptly  terminated  by  a  club. 

The  two  anterior  thighs  are  stout,  and  the  tibiae  narrow  and  curved,  or 
arcuated. 

The  genera  are  Calcavy  Upis,  Tenebrio  proper,  and  Heterotarsus.  The 
Tenebrionites  are  very  common  under  bark  of  trees,  on  old  walls  and  the 
uninhabited  parts  of  houses. 


COLEOPTERA.  397 

FAMILY  II. 

TAXICORNES. 

In  this  second  family  of  the  heteromerous  Coleoptera,  we  find 
no  small  corneous  tooth  on  the  inner  side  of  the  maxillse.  All 
these  insects  are  winged,  their  body  is  most  commonly  square,  their 
thorax  trapezoidal  or  semicircular,  and  concealing  or  receiving  the 
head.  The  antennae,  usually  inserted  under  a  marginal  projection 
of  the  sides  of  the  head,  are  short,  more  or  less  perfoliate  or  granose, 
enlarge  insensibly,  or  terminate  in  a  club.  The  legs  are  only  adapt- 
ed for  walking,  and  all  the  joints  of  the  tarsi  are  entire,  and  termi- 
nated by  single  hooks;  the  anterior  tibias  are  frequently  broad  and 
triangular.  Several  males  have  the  head  furnished  with  horns. 
Most  of  them  inhabit  the  fungi  on  trees,  or  under  the  bark;  some 
live  on  the  ground,  under  stones. 

In  some,  the  head  is  completely  exposed,  and  never  entirely  re- 
ceived into  a  deep  notch  in  the  anterior  of  the  thorax.  This  last  is 
sometimes  trapezoidal  or  square,  and  at  others  almost  cylindrical; 
its  sides,  as  well  as  those  of  the  elytra,  do  not  extend  remarkably 
beyond  the  body. 

This  division  will  form  the  tribe  of  the  Diaperiales,  the  type  of 
which  is  the  genus 

DiAPEEIS. 

In  Diaperis  properly  so  called,  the  maxillary  palpi  terminate  in  an  almost 
cylindrical  joint,  hardly  thicker  than  the  penultimate;  and  the  anterior 
tibise,  hardly  or  not  at  all  wider  than  the  following'  ones,  are  narrow,  almost 
linear,  and  slightly  dilated  at  the  extremity. 

The  remaining  genera  of  this  tribe  are  Phaleria,  Hypophlasus,  Tetrato- 
ma,  EUdona,  &c. 

Our  second  tribe  of  the  Taxicornes,  the  Cossyphenes,  consists 
of  Insects  analogous  in  form  to  the  PcZiz*  of  Fabricius,  and  to  seve- 
ral Nitidulae  and  Cassidse:  it  is  ovoid  or  sub-hemispherical,  and 
overlapped  in  its  contour  by  the  dilated  or  flattened  sides  of  the  tho- 
rax and  elytra;  the  head  is  sometimes  entirely  concealed  under  that 
thorax,  and  at  others  received  into  an  anterior  emargination  of  the 
same  part.  The  last  joint  of  the  maxillary  palpi  is  larger  than  the 
preceding  ones,  and  securiform. 


398  INSECTA. 

This  tribe  is  composed  of  the  genus 

CossYPHus,  Oliv.  Fab. 
Some  of  them  have  a  flat  body,  of  a  solid  consistence,  in  the  form  of  a  shield, 
and  antennae  terminated  by  a  club  composed  of  four  or  five  joints;  they  are 
peculiar  to  the  eastern  continent  and*  to  New  Holland.     Such  are  those 
which  form  the 

CossTPHus,  Oliv.  Fab. 

Or  Cossyphus  properly  so  called,  where  the  almost  semicircular  thorax 
presents  no  anterior  emargination,  and  entirely  conceals  the  head;  where 
the  antennae  are  short,  and  terminate  abruptly  in  an  oval  mass  of  four  joints, 
most  of  which  are  transversal;  the  second  of  the  whole  number  and  the 
following-  ones  are  almost  identical. 

These  Insects  inhabit  the  East  Indies,  southern  part  of  Europe,  and  north 
of  Africa. 


FAMILY  III. 

STENELYTRA.(1) 

The  third  family  ofheteromerous  Coleoptera  only  differs  from  the 
second  in  the  antennae,  which  are  neither  granose  nor  perfoliate,  and 
whose  extremity,  in  the  greater  number,  is  not  thickened.  The 
body  is  most  frequently  oblong,  and  arcuated  above,  and  the  legs 
are  elongated  as  in  many  other  Insects.  With  the  exception  of  their 
antennae  and  size,  the  males  resemble  the  females.  These  Hetero- 
mera  are  usually  much  more  agile  than  the  preceding  ones;  several 
conceal  themselves  under  the  bark  of  old  trees,  while  most  of  the 
others  are  found  on  leaves  and  flowers. 

In  some,  the  antennae  are  approximated  to  the  eyes,  and  the  head 
is  not  prolonged  in  the  manner  of  a  proboscis,  but  terminated  at 
most  by  a  very  short  snout.     They  will  form  our  four  first  tribes. 

Those  of  the  first  or  the  Helopii,  have  their  antennas  covered  at 
base  by  the  margin  of  the  head;  they  are  generally  filiform  or  slightly 
thickened  towards  the  extremity,  generally  composed  of  almost  cy- 
lindrical joints  attenuated  at  base,  of  which  the  penultimate  ones 
are  frequently  a  little  shorter,  and  in  the  form  of  a  reversed  cone, 
and  the  last  is  usually  almost  ovoid;  the  third  is  always  elongated. 


(1)  Compressed  wing  cases. 


COLEOPTERA.  399 

The  extremity  of  the  mandibles  is  bifid;  the  last  joint  of  the  maxil- 
lary palpi  is  larger  and  securiform,  or  in  the  figure  of  a  reversed 
triangle;  the  eyes  are  oblong,  and  reniform  or  emarginated.  None 
of  the  legs  are  fitted  for  leaping;  the  penultimate  joint  of  the  tarsi, 
or  at  least  of  the  last  ones,  is  almost  always  entire  or  not  deeply 
emarginate;  their  terminal  hooks  are  simple,  or  without  fissure  or 
dentation;  the  body  is  most  commonly  arcuated  above,  and  always 
solid  and  firm. 

Such  of  the  larv£B  as  are  known  to  us  are  smooth,  filiform  and 
glossy,  with  very  short  legs,  like  that  of  a  Tenebrio.  They  are 
found  in  old  wood,  and  the  perfect  Insect  lives  under  the  bark  of 
trees. 

This  tribe  mostly  corresponds  to  the  genus 

Helops,  Fab. 
In  Helops  properly  so  styled,  most  of  the  joints  of  the  anteniiK  are  almost 
obconical  or  cylindrical,  and  attenuated  at  base.  The  thorax  is  transversal, 
or  hardly  as  long  as  it  is  wide,  either  square,  trapezoidal,  or  cordiform, 
abruptly  narrowed  posteriorly,  terminated  by  pointed  angles,  and  always 
exactly  applied  to  the  base  of  the  elytra. 

The  remaining  genera  of  this  tribe  aie  Epitragus,  Cnodalon,  Campsia,  &c. 

The  second  tribe,  that  of  the  Cistelides,  is  very  closely  allied 
indeed  to  the  first,  but  the  insertion  of  the  antennae  is  not  covered, 
the  mandibles  terminate  in  an  entire  or  unemarginate  point,  and  the 
hooks  of  the  tarsi  are  pectinated  inferiorly.  Several  of  these  In- 
sects live  on  flowers.     This  tribe  forms  the  genus 

CisTELA,  Fab. 
In  Cistela  properly  so  called,  the  head  projects  in  the  manner  of  a  snout, 
and  the  labrum  is  hardly  wider  than  it  is  long;  most  of  the  joints  of  the 
antenna  are  either  obconical,  triangular,  or  even  serrated;  the  last  is  always 
oblong.     The  body  is  ovoid  or  bordering  on  an  oval. 
The  other  genera  are  Lystronichus,  Mycetophagus,  and  MUcula. 

The  third  tribe,  that  of  the  Sereopalpides,  is  remarkable,  as  in- 
timated by  its  name,  for  the  maxillary  palpi,  which  are  frequently 
serrated,  very  large,  and  inclined.  The  antenna3  are  inserted  in  an 
emargination  of  the  eyes,  exposed,  as  in  the  preceding  tribe,  and 
most  usually  short  and  filiform.  The  mandibles  are  emarginated 
or  bifid  at  the  extremity,  and  the  hooks  of  the  tarsi  are  simple. 


400  INSECTA. 

The  body  is  almost  cylindrical  in  some,  and  oval  in  others;  the  head 
is  inclined,  and  the  thorax  trapezoidal.  The  anterior  extremity  of 
the  head  does  not  project,  and  the  posterior  thighs  not  inflated, 
characters  which  distinguish  these  Insects  from  various  Heteromera 
of  the  ensuing  tribe.  The  penultimate  joint  of  the  tarsi,  or  at  least 
of  the  four  anterior  ones,  is  most  commonly  bilobate,  and  in  those 
where  it  is  entire,  the  posterior  legs  at  least  are  fitted  for  leaping; 
in  this  case  they  are  long  and  compressed,  the  tarsi  small,  almost 
setaceous,  and  their  first  joint  elongated;  the  anterior  ones  are  fre- 
quently short  and  dilated. 

The  type  of  this  tribe  is  the  genus 

DiRC^A,  Fab. 

In  Dircsea  properly  so  called,  the  maxillary  palpi  are  not  serrated,  and  their 
last  joint  projects  more  on  the  inner  side  than  the  preceding  ones.     The 
thorax  is  insensibly  lowered  on  the  side.     The  scutellum  is  very  small. 
Here  we  have  Orchesia,  Halhmenus,  Melandrya,  Hypulus,  &c. 

The  fourth  tribe,  that  of  the  CEdemeeites,  is  connected  with  the 
third  by  several  characters,  such  as  having  the  antennse  inserted 
near  the  eyes,  and  their  origin  exposed,  the  mandibles  bifid  at  the 
end,  the  penultimate  joint  of  the  tarsi  bilobate,  and  the  maxillary 
palpi  terminated  by  a  larger  and  securiform  joint;  but  if  we  except 
the  Nothi,  approximated  by  the  form  and  breadth  of  the  thorax,  and 
by  some  other  characters  to  certain  Heteromera  of  the  preceding 
tribe,  and  yet  distinguished  from  them  by  their  strongly  inflated 
posterior  thighs,  and  their  bicleft  tarsial  hooks,  the  CEdemerites  pre- 
sent a  union  of  characters  which  will  not  allow  us  to  confound  them 
with  the  other  Heteromera.  The  body  is  elongated,  narrow,  almost 
linear,  and  the  head  and  thorax  are  somewhat  narrower  than  the 
abdomen.  The  antennae  are  longer  than  the  two  latter,  serrated  in 
some — Calopus — filiform  or  setaceous,  and  composed  of  long  and 
almost  cylindrical  joints  in  the  others;  the  anterior  extremity  of  the 
head  is  more  or  less  prolonged  into  a  little  snout,  and  somewhat 
narrowed  behind;  the  eyes  are  proportionally  more  elevated  than 
in  the  preceding  Heteromera.  The  thorax  is  at  least  as  long  as  it 
is  broad,  almost  square,  or  nearly  cylindrical,  and  slightly  narrowed 
behind;  the  elytra  are  linear  or  subulate  posteriorly,  and  frequently 
flexible.  These  Insects  are  found  on  flowers  or  trees.  Their  me- 
tamorphoses are  unknown. 


COLEOPTERA.  401 

These  Heteromera  will  be  comprised  in  a  single  genus,  the 

CEdemera,  Oliv. 

Where  the  posterior  thighs  are  strongly  inflated  in  one  of  the  sexes,  where 
the  antennae  are  usually  long  and  smaller  at  the  extremity,  and  the  elytra 
suddenly  narrowed  near  the  end. 
There  are  several  subgenera. 

Tlie  fifth  and  last  tribe  of  the  Stenelytra,  that  of  the  Rhynchos- 
TOMA,  is  composed  of  Insects,  some  of  which,  such  as  the  first,  are 
evidently  related  by  the  ensemble  of  their  characters  to  the  Ql^de- 
merae,  while  the  others,  in  a  natural  series,  appear  to  belong  to  the 
family  of  the  Rhynchophora.  The  head  is  considerably  prolonged 
anteriorly  in  the  form  of  an  elongated  snout  or  flattened  proboscis, 
bearing  the  antennae  at  its  base  and  before  the  eyes,  which  are  al- 
ways entire  or  unemarginate.  These  Insects  form  a  single  genus, 
that  of 

MVCTERUS. 

In  Mycterus  properly  so  called,  the  body  is  ovoid,  sohd,  covered  by  a  silky 
down,  and  the  thorax  trapeziform.  The  abdomen  is  square,  long,  rounded 
posteriorly;  the  antennx  are  composed  of  joints,  mostly  obconical,  the  com- 
plete number  of  which  seems  to  be  twelve,  the  eleventh  or  last  being  ab- 
ruptly narrowed  and  acuminated,  and  the  maxillary  palpi  are  terminated 
by  a  larger  joint  in  tlie  form  of  a  reversed  triangle. 
The  subgenera  are  Stenostoma  and  Rhinosimu^. 

FAMILY  IV. 

TRACHELIDES. 

In  our  second  general  division  and  fourth  family  of  heterome- 
rous  Coleoptera,  the  head  is  triangular  or  cordiform,  and  borne  on 
a  sort  of  neck  or  pedicle,  abruptly  formed,  beyond  which,  being  as 
wide  at  this  point  as  the  thorax,  or  wider,  it  cannot  enter  the  cavity 
of  the  latter.  The  body  is  most  commonly  soft,  the  elytra  are  flexi- 
ble, without  striae,  sometimes  very  short,  and  a  little  inclined  in 
others.  The  maxillae  are  never  unguiculated.  The  joints  of  the 
tarsi  are  frequently  entire,  and  the  hooks  of  the  last  bifid. 

Most  of  the  perfect  Insects  live  on  different  plants,  devour  their 
leaves,  or  suck  the  nectar  of  their  flowers.     Many,  when  seized, 

3  A 


402  INSECT A. 

curve  their  head  and  fold  up  their  feet  as  if  they  were  dead;  the 
others  are  very  active. 

We  will  divide  this  family  into  six  tribes,  forming  as  many  genera. 

In  the  first,  or  that  of  the  Lagriaei^,  the  body  is  elongated  and 
narrower  before;  the  thorax  either  almost  cylindrical  or  square,  or 
ovoid  and  truncated;  the  antennae,  inserted  near  an  emargination  of 
the  eyes,  are  simple,  filiform,  or  insensibly  enlarged  towards  the  end, 
most  frequently  and  at  least  partially  granose,  the  last  joint  being 
longer  than  the  preceding  ones  in  the  males;  the  palpi  are  thicker 
at  the  extremity. 

The  species  indigenous  to  France  are  found  in  woods,  on  various 
plants;  their  body  is  soft,  their  elytra  are  flexible,  and  like  the  Me- 
loes,  the  Cantharides,  when  taken,  counterfeit  death. 

This  tribe  is  formed  of  the  genus 

Lagria,  Fab. 
Those  species,  in  which  the  antennae  gradually  enlarge,  and  are  either 
wholly  or  partly  almost  granose,  with  the  last  joint  ovoid  or  oval;  in  which 
the  head  projects  but  little  before,  and  is  prolonged  and  insensibly  rounded 
behind;  and  where  the  thorax  is  almost  cylindrical  or  square,  compose  the 
^enus  Lagkia  properly  so  called. 

The  second  tribe,  that  of  the  Pyeochroides,  approaches  the  first 
in  the  tarsi  and  the  anterior  elongation  and  narrowing  of  the  body, 
but  it  is  flattened,  and  the  thorax  is  almost  orbicular  or  trapezoidal. 
The  antennae,  at  least  in  the  males,  are  pectinated  or  plumousj  the 
maxillary  palpi  are  slightly  serrated,  and  terminated  by  an  elongated 
and  almost  securiform  joint;  the  labial  palpi  are  filiform;  the  abdo- 
men is  elongated,  entirely  covered  by  the  elytra,  and  rounded  at  the 
extremity. 

These  Heteromera,  which  are  found  in  the  spring  in  woods,  and 
whose  lai-vae  live  under  the  bark  of  trees,  form  the  genus 

Pyrochroa,  Geoff. 
In  Pyrochroa  properly  so  called,  the  antenna:  are  simply  pectinated  and 
shorter,  the  eyes  are  remote  from  each  other,  and  the  thorax  is  almost  orbi- 
cular and  transversal. 

In  the  third  tribe,  that  of  the  MoRDELLONiE,  so  far  as  respects  the 
form  of  the  joints  of  the  tarsi  and  of  their  hooks,  and  of  that  of  the 
antennae  and  palpi,  we  find  no  common  and  constant  character. 


COLEOPTERA.  403 

These  Insects,  however,  are  easily  distinguished  from  other  Hete- 
romera  of  the  same  family,  by  the  general  conformation  of  their 
body,  which  is  elevated  and  arcuated;  the  head  is  low,  the  thorax 
trapezoidal  or  semicircular,  and  the  elytra  are  very  short  or  nar- 
rowed, and  terminate  in  a  point,  like  the  abdomen.  They  form  the 
genus 

MoRDELLA,  Lin. 
In  Mordella  properly  so  called,  the  antennae  are  of  equal  thickness  through- 
out, and  somewhat  sen-ated  in  the  males;  all  the  joints  of  the  tarsi  are  entire, 
and  the  hooks  of  the  last  present  one  or  two  indentations  beneath.     The 
eyes  are  not  emarginate. 

The  subgenera  are  Ripiphorus,  Myodites,  Pelocotoma,  and  Anaspis. 

In  the  fourth  tribe,  that  of  the  Anthicides,  we  find  the  antennae 
simple  or  slightly  serrate,  filiform,  or  a  little  thicker  towards  the 
extremity,  most  of  the  joints  being  nearly  obconical  and  almost 
similar,  with  the  exception  of  the  last,  which  is  somewhat  larger 
and  oval.  The  thorax  is  sometimes  obovoid,  narrowed  and  trun- 
cated posteriorly,  sometimes  divided  into  two  knots,  and  at  others 
semicircular.  Some  of  these  Insects  are  found  on  various  plants, 
but  the  greater  number  live  on  the  ground.  They  run  with  great 
quickness.     Their  larvae  are  perhaps  parasitical. 

They  will  compose  the  genus 

NoToxus,  Geoff. 
In  Notoxus  properly  so  called,  the  antennse  enlarge  insensibly  and  are  al- 
most entirely  composed  of  obconical  joints,  and  the  thorax  is  obovoid,  nar- 
rowed and  truncated  posteriorly,  or  divided  into  two  globular  points. 

The  two  last  tribes  of  this  family  and  of  the  section  of  the  Hete- 
romera  present  certain  common  characters,  such  as  mandibles  ter- 
minating in  a  simple  point,  &c.  In  a  perfect  state  they  are  all 
herbivorous,  but  several,  in  their  first  state,  or  that  of  larvas,  are 
parasitical. 

The  Horiales,  composing  the  fifth  tribe,  differ  from  those  which 
constitute  the  sixth,  or  the  Cantharidise,  in  their  hooks,  which  are 
indented  and  accompanied  (each)  by  a  serrated  appendage.  These 
Insects  have  filiform  antennai,  as  long,  at  mosi,  as  the  thorax,  a 
small  labrum,  strong  and  salient  mandibles,  filiform  palpi,  square 
thorax,  and  very  robust  posterior  legs,  at  least  in  one  of  the  sexes^ 


404  INSECTA. 

This  tribe  is  composed  of  the  genus 

HoEiA,  Fab. 
These  Insects  inhabit  the  intra-tropical  countries  of  South  America  and  of 
the  East  Indies. 

The  sixth  and  last  tribe,  that  of  the  Cantiiakidi^,  is  distinguished 
from  the  preceding  one  by  the  hooks  of  the  tarsi,  which  are  deeply 
cleft,  and  seem  to  be  double.  The  head  is  usually  large,  wider, 
and  rounded  posteriorly.  The  thorax  is  commonly  narrowed  be- 
hind, and  approaches  the  form  of  a  truncated  heart;  in  others  it  is 
almost  orbicular.  The  elytra  are  frequently  somewhat  inclined  la- 
terally, or  tectiform,  flattened,  and  rounded.  These  Insects  simu- 
late death  when  they  are  seized,  and  several,  thus  situated,  produce 
a  caustic  yellowish  liquid  of  a  penetrating  odour,  from  the  articula- 
tions of  their  feet;  the  organs  which  secrete  it  have  not  yet  been 
detected. 

Various  species — Meloes,  Mylabres,  Cantharides — are  employed 
externally  as  epispastics.     This  tribe  is  formed  of  the  genus 

Meloe,  Lin. 
Which  has  been  divided  into  several  others. 

In  Meloe  properly  so  called,  the  antennse  are  composed  of  short  and 
rounded  joints,  the  intermediate  of  which  are  the  largest,  and  sometimes 
so  disposed,  that  these  organs  present  in  this  point,  in  several  males,  an 
emargination  or  crescent.  The  wings  are  wanting,  and  the  elytra,  oval 
or  triangular,  with  a  portion  of  the  inner  margin  crossing  each  other,  only 
partially  cover  the  abdomen,  particularly  in  the  females,  where  it  is  ex- 
tremely voluminous. 

They  crawl  along  the  ground,  or  upon  low  plants  on  the  leaves  of  which 
they  feed.  A  yellowish  or  reddish  oleaginous  liquid  exudes  from  the  articu- 
lations oftheu'legs. 

In  some  districts  of  Spain,  these  Insects  are  used  in  place  of  Cantharides, 
or  are  mixed  with  them.  They  are  also  employed  by  the  Farriers.  They 
were  formerly  regarded  as  a  specific  in  hydrophobia.  I  suspect  that  our 
Meloes  are  the  Buprestes  of  the  ancients,  Insects  to  which  they  attributed 
very  noxious  qualities,  and  which,  according  to  them,  killed  tlie  Oxen  that 
accidentally  swallowed  them  while  grazing. 

Among  the  divisions  of  this  genus  the  most  noted  is  the 

Canthahis,  Geoff.  Ohv. — Meloe,  Lin. — Lytta,  Fab. 
All  the  joints  of  the  tarsi  entire,  and  the  thorax  almost  ovoid,  slightly 
elongated,  narrowed  anteriorly  and  truncated  posteriorly,   by  which  this 


COLEOPTERA.  403 

subgenus  is  distinguished  from  the  preceding  one.  The  head  is  a  Uttle 
wider  than  the  thorax.  The  antenna  of  the  males  are  sometimes  irregular 
and  even  semipectinated. 

C.  vesicaturius.  (The  Spanish  Fly.)  From  six  to  ten  lines  in  length,  of 
a  glossy  golden-green,  with  simple,  regular,  black  antenna.  This  Insect  is 
weU  known  from  its  medical  uses. 

It  appears  in  France,  near  the  time  of  the  summer  solstice,  and  is  more 
particularly  found  about  the  Ash  and  Lilac,  on  the  leaves  of  which  it  feeds; 
it  diffuses  a  highly  peneti'ating  odour.  The  larva  lives  in  the  ground  and 
gnaws  the  roots  of  plants.  In  the  United  States  of  America,  the  species 
called  by  Fabricius  the  viiaita,  (our  Potato-JJy),  and  which  abounds  on  the 
potato  plants,  is  applied  to  the  same  uses  as  the  one  of  which  we  are 
speaking. 

The  third  general  section  of  the  Coleoptera,  that  of  the  Tetra- 
MEKA,  consists  exclusively  of  those  in  which  all  the  tarsi  are  quad- 
riarticulated. 

All  these  Insects  live  on  vegetable  matters.  The  feet  of  their 
larvae  are  usually  very  short,  and  they  are  even  wanting  or  are  re- 
placed by  mammillse  in  a  great  number.  The  perfect  Insect  is 
found  on  the  flowers  or  leaves  of  plants. 


FAMILY  I. 

RHYNCHOPHORA(l). 

This  family  is  distinguished  by  the  entire  prolongation  of  the  head, 
which  forms  a  sort  of  snout  or  proboscis. 

The  abdomen  is  bulky  in  most  of  them,  the  antennas  geniculate, 
and  frequently  clavate.  The  penultimate  joint  of  the  tarsi  is  almost 
always  bilobate.     The  posterior  thighs  are  dentated  in  several. 

The  larvas  have  an  oblong  body,  and  resemble  a  small,  very  soft, 
white  worm;  their  head  is  squamous,  and  they  are  destitute  of  feet, 
or  in  lieu  of  them  there  are  merely  small  mammillae.  They  gnaw 
various  parts  of  plants.  Several  live  exclusively  in  the  interior  of 
their  fruit  or  seeds,  and  frequently  do  us  much  injury.  Their  chry- 
salides are  enclosed  in  a  shell.  Many  of  the  Rhynchophora,  when 
very  abundant  within  certain  limits,  are  even  very  noxious  in  their 
perfect  state.     They  tap  the  buds  or  leaves  of  various  cultivated 


(1)  Long-snouted. 


406  INSECT  A. 

vegetables,  useful  or  necessary  to  man,  and  feed  on  their  paren- 
chyma. 

Beuchus,  Lin. 

In  Bruchus  proper,  the  antennse  are  filiform  and  frequently  serrated  or 
pectinated;  the  eyes  are  emarginated.  The  posterior  legs  are  usually  very 
large. 

The  females  deposit  an  egg  in  the  yet  diminutive  and  tender  germ  of 
various  leguminous  cerealia,  of  the  Coffee-tree,  Palms,  &c.,  where  the 
larva  lives  and  is  metamorphosed.  To  obtain  an  issue  the  perfect  Insect 
detaches  a  portion  of  the  epidermis  in  the  form  of  a  cap,  thus  producing 
those  holes  but  too  often  found  in  peas,  beans,  dates,  &c.  The  perfect 
Insect  is  taken  on  flowers. 

The  labrum  is  apparent,  the  anterior  elongation  of  their  head  short,  broad, 
depressed,  and  in  the  form  of  a  snout;  the  palpi  are  very  visible  and  fili- 
form, or  larger  at  the  extremity, 

B.  pisi,  L.  Length  two  lines;  black;  base  of  the  antennae  and  part  of 
the  legs  fulvous;  elytra  dotted  with  grey.  A  very  noxious  little  Insect, 
that  in  certain  seasons  has  occasioned  much  damage  in  North  America. 

Those,  in  which  the  three  or  four  last  joints  are  united  into  a  club,  form 
the  genus 

Attelabus,  Lin. 

They  attack  the  leaves  or  most  tender  parts  of  plants.  Most  of  the  females 
roll  up  these  leaves  into  a  tube  or  cornet,  in  which  they  deposit  their  eggs, 
thus  preparing  a  domicil  for  their  young  ones,  which  also  furnishes  them 
with  food. 

Those,  in  which  the  antennae  are  filiform,  or  where  the  last  joint  alone 
forms  the  club;  where  the  proboscis,  frequently  longer  in  the  males  than  in 
the  females,  and  often  differently  terminated,  always  projects  forwards;  in 
which  all  the  other  parts  of  the  body  are  usually  much  elongated,  and  the 
penultimate  joint  of  the  tarsi  is  bilobate,  form  the  genus 

Brentus. 

These  Insects  are  peculiar  to  hot  climates.  Their  body  is  linear,  and  the 
antennae,  filiform  or  slightly  enlarged  towards  the  extremity,  are  composed 
of  eleven  joints. 

Sometimes  the  antennae  are  distinctly  geniculate,  the  first  joint  being 
much  longer  than  the  following  ones.  They  form  the  genus  Curculio  of 
Linnaeus. 

We  will  divide  them  into  the  Brevirostres  and  the  Longirostres,  according 
as  the  antennae  are  inserted  near  the  extremity  of  the  proboscis,  and  even 
with  the  origin  of  the  mandibles,  or  further  back,  either  near  its  middle  or 
close  to  its  base. 

The  Brevirostres  of  this  naturalist,  according  to  the  system  of  Fabricius, 
are  divided  into  two  genera. 


COLEOPTERA.  407 

Brachv'cektjs. 
Where  all  the  joints  of  the  tarsi  are  entu*e  and  without  brush  or  pellet  be- 
neath. Their  short  and  but  slightly  geniculate  antennx  present  externally 
but  nine  joints,  the  last  of  which  forms  the  club.  They  are  destitute  of 
wings,  and  their  body  is  very  scabrous  or  uneven.  These  Insects  are 
peculiar  to  the  south  of  Europe  and  to  Africa,  live  on  the  ground  and  ap- 
pear very  early  in  the  spring.  The  women  of  Ethiopia  use  one  species  as 
a  sort  of  amulet^  they  pass  a  string  through  its  body  and  hang  it  round  their 
neck. 

CuECULIO. 

Where  almost  the  whole  under  part  of  the  tarsi  is  furnished  with  short  and 
stiff  hairs,  forming  pellets,  and  their  penultimate  joint  is  deeply  bilobate. 
Their  antennx  are  composed  of  eleven  joints,  or  even  of  twelve  if  we  count 
the  false  one,  which  sometimes  terminates  them,  the  last  of  which  form  the 
club. 

As  this  genus,  although  much  more  restricted  than  in  the  Linnean  sys- 
tem, still  comprises  numerous  species  discovered  since  the  time  of  that 
naturalist,  various  savans,  Germar  and  Schoenherr  in  particular,  have  divided 
it  into  many  others. 

C.  imperialis,  Fab.  (The  Diamond-Beetle).  A  brilliant  golden-green 
with  two  black  and  longitudinal  bauds  on  the  thorax;  ranges  of  golden- 
green  impressed  points  on  the  elytra,  with  black  intervals. 

The  Longirostres,  or  those  whose  antennae  are  inserted  beyond  the  origin 
of  the  mandibles,  and  frequently  near  the  middle  of  the  proboscis,  which 
is  usually  long,  comprise,  with  some  exceptions,  the  genera  lAxus,  Rhyn- 
chxnus,  and  Calandra  of  Fabricius. 

In  the  two  first  the  antennae  present  ten  joints  at  least,  but  most  commonly 
eleven  or  twelve,  of  which  the  three  last  at  least  form  the  club. 

Lixus,  Fab. 
The  Lixi  almost  resemble  the  Cleoni  in  their  organs  of  manducation,  as 
well  as  in  the  elongated  fusiform  club  of  their  antennae,  the  narrow  and 
elongated  figure  of  their  body,  and  the  armature  of  their  tibiae. 

Rhyncu^nus,  Fab. 
The  lihynchaeni  present  no  such  ensemble  of  characters. 

Sometimes  the  legs  are  contiguous  at  base,  and  there  is  no  sternal  fossula 
for  the  reception  of  the  proboscis. 

Some  never  leap,  and  their  antennae  are  composed  of  eleven  or  twelve 
joints.     The  subgenera  are  numerous. 

The  remaining  Longirostres  have  generally  nine  joints  at  most  in  the 
antennae,  and  the  last,  or  two  last  at  most,  form  a  club  with  a  coriaceous 
epidermis  and  spongy  extremity.  They  feed,  at  least  while  in  the  state  of 
larvae,  on  seeds  or  ligneous  substances. 


408  IN SECT A. 

They  may  be  united  In  the  single  genus 

Calandra. 

In  Calandra  properly  so  called,  the  antennae  are  strongly  geniculate,  but 
inserted  near  the  base  of  the  proboscis;  their  eighth  joint  forms  an  ovoid  or 
triangular  club. 

C.  granaria.  But  too  well  known;  its  body  is  elongated  and  brown; 
thorax  as  long  as  the  elytra  and  punctured.  Its  larva,  known  by  the  name 
of  weevil  {genre),  is  the  destroyer  of  our  granaries. 

C.  oryzse.  Similar  to  the  preceding,  but  with  two  fulvous  spots  on  each 
elytron.    It  attacks  rice. 

C.  palmarum.  Length  an  inch  and  a  half;  club  of  the  antennae  truncated; 
entirely  black,  with  silky  hairs  at  the  extremity  of  the  proboscis.  It  lives 
on  the  pith  of  the  Palms  of  South  America.  The  inhabitants  of  that  coun- 
try consider  its  larva,  called  the  ver-palmiste,  as  a  great  delicacy. 

There  are  several  subgenera. 

FAMILY  II. 

XYLOPHAGI(l). 

In  our  second  family  of  tetramerous  Coleoptera,  we  find  the  head 
terminating  as  usual,  without  any  remarkable  projection,  in  the  form 
of  a  proboscis  or  snout.  The  antennae  are  thicker  near  the  extre- 
mity, or  perfoliate  at  base,  always  short,  and  consist  of  less  than 
eleven  joints  in  a  great  number.  The  joints  of  the  tarsi  are  usually 
entire,  the  penultimate  being  sometimes  widened  and  cordiform  in 
others;  in  this  case  the  antennae  always  terminate  in  a  club,  either 
solid  and  ovoid,  or  trifoliate,  and  the  palpi  are  small  and  conical. 

These  Insects  mostly  live  in  wood  which  is  perforated  and  chan- 
nelled in  various  directions  by  their  larvae.  When  they  happen  to 
abound  in  forests,  those  of  Pines  and  Firs  particularly,  they  destroy 
in  a  ^GW  years  immense  numbers  of  trees,  which  are  rendered  use- 
less for  any  purpose  of  art.  Others  do  great  injury  to  the  Olive, 
and  some  again  feed  on  Mushrooms. 

We  will  divide  this  family  into  three  sections. 

1.  Those  in  which  the  antennae  are  composed  of  ten  joints  at 
most,  sometimes  terminating  in  a  stout  club,  most  commonly  solid, 


(1)  Wood-eaters. 


COLEOPTERA.  409 

and  sometimes  consisting  of  three  elongated  leaflets;  and  at  others 
forming  a  cylindrical  and  perfoliate  club  from  their  base,  and  in 
which  the  palpi  are  conical.  The  anterior  legs  of  the  greater  num- 
ber are  dentated  and  armed  with  a  stout  hook,  and  the  tarsi,  of 
which  the  penultimate  joint  is  frequently  cordiform  or  bilobate,  are 
susceptible  of  being  flexed  on  them. 

Some  have  very  small  palpi,  the  body  convex  and  rounded  above,  or  al- 
most ovoid,  the  head  globular  and  plunged  into  the  thorax,  and  the  antennx 
soUd  or  trilamellate,  and  preceded  by  five  johits  at  least. 

These  Xylophagi  form  the  genus 

ScoLYTTJs,  Geoff. 

In  Scolytus  properly  so  called,  the  antennae  are  straight,  beardless,  and  in- 
serted close  to  the  inner  margin  of  the  eyes,  which  are  narrow,  elongated, 
and  vertical. 

The  others  have  large  and  very  apparent  palpi  of  unequal  lengths. 
Their  body  is  depressed  and  narrowed  before;  their  antennae  sometimes 
consist  of  two  joints,  the  last  of  which  is  very  large,  flattened,  and  almost 
triangular  or  nearly  ovoid,  and  sometimes  of  ten,  and  are  entirely  perfoliate. 

The  labium  is  large;  the  elytra  are  truncated,  and  tarsi  short,  with  all  the 
joints  entire.  These  insects  are  all  foreign  to  Europe,  and  compose  the 
genus 

Paussus,  Lin. 

Where  the  antennx  consist  of  but  two  joints,  with  the  last  large  and  com- 
pressed. 

2.  A  second  section  will  comprise  those  Xylophagi,  whose  an- 
tennae consist  of  but  ten  joints,  and  in  which  the  palpi,  at  least  those 
of  the  maxillae,  do  not  gradually  taper  to  a  point,  but  are  of  equal 
thickness  throughout,  or  dilated  at  the  extremity.  The  joints  of 
their  tarsi  are  always  entire. 

We  will  divide  them  into  principal  genera,  according  to  the  mode 
in  which  the  antennae  terminate.  The  three  last  joints  form  a  per- 
foliate club  in  the  flrst,  or 

BOSTRICHUS. 

In  Bostrichus  proper,  the  body  is  more  or  less  cylindrical,  the  head  round- 
ed, almost  globular,  and  capable  of  being  received  into  the  thorax  as  far 
as  the  eyes;  the  thorax  is  more  or  less  convex  before,  and  forms  a  sort  of 
hood;  the  two  first  joints  of  the  tarsi,  as  well  as  the  last,  are  elongated. 
3  B 


410  INSECTA. 

S.  capucinus.    Five  lines  in  length,  with  a  red  abdomen  and  elytra  of  the 
same  colour.    Very  common  in  old  wood  in  timber  yards. 
The  second  genus  of  this  division,  or 

MONOTOMA, 

Is  distinguished  from  the  first  by  the  solid  and  globuliform  club — ^the  tenth 
joint — of  the  antennae. 

The  body  is  elongated,  depressed,  and  frequently  forms  a  paraUelopiped; 
the  anterior  part  of  the  head  is  narrowed,  and  projects  somewhat  in  the 
manner  of  a  triangular  and  obtuse  snout.  The  palpi  are  very  small,  and, 
as  well  as  the  mandibles,  not  salient. 

3.  The  Xylophagi  of  the  third  division  have  eleven  very  distinct 
joints  in  the  antennae;  their  palpi  are  filiform,  or  thicker  at  the  ex- 
tremity in  some,  and  smaller  in  others;  all  the  joints  of  the  tarsi  are 
entire. 

Those  in  which  the  olub  of  the  antennse  consists  of  but  two  joints  form 
the  genus 

Lyctus. 

In  Lyctus  proper,  the  margin  of  the  head  covers  the  whole  or  greater  part 
of  the  first  joint  of  the  antennse.     The  mandibles  are  not  sahent. 

In  the  other  Xylophagi  with  antennse  composed  of  eleven  joints,  the 
three  or  four  last  form  the  club,  or  the  last  is  alone  larger  than  the  preced- 
ing ones.     They  are  subdivided  thus: 

Sometimes  the  mandibles  are  covered  or  project  but  little,  as  in 

MycETopHAGUs,  Fab. 
In  Mycetophagus  proper,  the  club  of  the  antennae  commences  at  the  sixth 
or  seventh  joint;  the  last  is  almost  ovoid. 

There  are  several  subgenera,  such  as  Triphyllus,  Dasycerus,  Silva- 
nus,  &c. 

Sometimes  the  mandibles  are  entirely  exposed,  saUent  and  robust.  The 
body  is  generally  elongated,  narrow  and  depressed.  These  Insects  form 
the  genus 

Trogosita,  Oliv. 
In  Trogosita  proper,  the  mandibles  are  shorter  than  the  head  and  crossed; 
the  ligula,  almost  square,  is  not  prolonged  between  the  palpi,  and  the 
maxillx  have  but  a  single  lobe. 


COLEOPTERA.  411 

FAMILY  III. 

PLATYSOMA(l). 

Our  third  family  of  the  Tetramera  approaches  the  second,  so  far 
as  relates  to  the  internal  anatomy,  the  tarsi,  and  habits;  but  the  an- 
tennae are  of  equal  thickness  throughout,  or  more  slender  towards 
the  extremity.  The  mandibles  are  always  salient,  the  ligula  is  bifid 
or  emarginated;  the  palpi  are  short,  the  body  is  depressed  and  elon- 
gated, and  the  thorax  almost  square.  These  Insects  are  found 
under  the  bark  of  trees,  and  may  be  reduced  to  a  single  genus,  the 

Cucujus,  Fab. 
Where  the  antennx,  much  shorter  than  the  body  in  several,  are  composed 
of  obconical  or  turbinifonn  and  almost  granose  joints,  the  first  of  which 
is  shorter  than  the  head. 

There  are  two  subgenera,  Dendrophagua  and  Uleoiota. 

FAMILY  IV. 

L0NGIC0RNES(2). 

Here,  the  under  part  of  the  three  first  joints  of  the  tarsi  is  fur- 
nished with  a  brush;  the  second  and  third  are  codiform;  the  fourth 
is  deeply  bilobate,  and  there  is  a  little  nodule  resembling  a  joint  at 
the  base  of  the  last.  The  ligula,  placed  on  a  short  and  transversal 
mentum,  is  usually  membranous,  cordiform,  emarginated  or  bifid, 
corneous  and  forming  the  segment  of  a  very  short  and  transversal 
circle  in  others.  The  antennae  are  filiform  or  setaceous,  most  com- 
monly as  long  at  least  as  the  bodyj  they  are  sometimes  simple  in 
both  sexes,  and  sometimes  serrated,  pectinated,  or  flabelliform  in 
the  males.  The  eyes  of  a  great  many  are  reniform  and  surround 
them  at  base.  The  thorax  is  trapezoidal  or  narrowed  before,  in 
those  where  the  eyes  are  rounded  and  entire,  or  but  slightly  emar- 
ginated; even  in  this  case  the  legs  are  long  and  slender,  and  the  tarsi 
elongated. 

As  almost  all  their  larvae  live  in  the  interior  of  trees,  or  under 
their  bark,  they  are  destitute  of  feet,  or  have  but  very  small  ones. 


(1)  Flat-bodied.  (2)  Long-homed. 


412  INSECTA. 

Their  body  is  soft,  wliitish,  thickest  anteriorly,  and  the  head  squa- 
mous and  provided  with  stout  mandibles,  but  without  any  other 
projecting  part.  They  do  much  injury  to  trees,  the  large  ones  par- 
ticularly, perforating  them  very  deeply,  or  boring  holes  in  them  in 
every  direction.  Some  of  them  attack  the  roots  of  plants.  The 
abdomen  of  the  females  is  terminated  by  a  tubular  and  horny  ovi- 
positor. These  Insects  produce  a  small  sharp  sound  by  the  rubbing 
of  the  pedicle  of  the  base  of  their  abdomen  against  the  interior  of 
the  parieties  ofthe  thorax. 

We  will  in  the  first  place  divide  the  Longicornes  into  tv^o  sections. 

In  those  of  the  first,  the  eyes  are  either  strongly  emarginated  or 
lunate,  or  elongated  and  narrow;  the  head  is  plunged  into  the  tho- 
rax, as  far  as  those  organs,  without  being  distinguished  from  it  by 
an  abrupt  contraction  of  its  diameter,  forming  a  kind  of  neck;  in 
several  it  is  vertical. 

These  Longicornes  are  subdivided  into  Iveo  principal  sections  or 
small  tribes. 

1.  The  Prionii,  characterized  as  follows:  the  labrum  null  or  very 
small  and  indistinct;  the  mandibles  stout,  or  even  very  large,  parti- 
cularly in  most  ofthe  males;  the  internal  lobe  ofthe  maxillae  null  or 
very  small;  the  antennae  inserted  near  the  base  ofthe  mandibles  or 
the  emargination  of  the  eyes,  but  not  surrounded  by  the  latter  at 
base;  the  thorax  most  frequently  trapezoidal  or  square,  crenated  or 
dentated  laterally. 

The  first  genus,  or 

Parandra,  Lat, 

Where,  as  in  the  following,  the  antennje  are  simple,  almost  granose,  com- 
pressed, of  equal  thickness  throughout,  and  as  long  as  the  thorax  at  most, 
is  distinguished  from  that  genus,  as  well  as  from  all  others  of  the  same 
family,  by  its  corneous  ligula,  which  is  in  the  form  of  the  segment  of  a  very 
short,  transversal  circle  without  emargination  or  lobes.  The  body  is  a 
parallelepiped,  and  depressed,  and  the  thorax  square,  rounded  at  the  pos- 
terior angles,  and  without  spines  or  teeth.  These  Insects  are  pecuhar  to 
America. 

Spondylis,  Fab. 

The  Spondyles,  which  approximate  to  the  Parandrs  in  their  antennae  and 
the  exiguity  of  their  maxillary  lobes,  are  removed  from  them  by  their  hgfula,- 
the  latter,  as  in  all  the  following  Longicornes,  is  membranous  and  cordiform 


COLEOPTERA.  413 

The  Spondyles  are  also  distinguished  from  the  following  genera  by  their 
almost  globular  thorax,  the  margin  of  which  is  neither  recurved  nor  furnish- 
ed with  teeth  or  spines. 

Their  larva  live  in  the  interior  of  European  Pines  and  Firs. 

In  the  third  and  last  genus  of  this  tribe,  or 

Prionus,  Geoff.   Fab.  Oliv. 
The  antenna  are  longer  than  the  head  and  thorax,  serrated  or  pectinated  in 
some;  simple,  attenuated  near  the  extremity,  and  with  elongated  joints  in 
others.      The  body  is  generally  depressed,  and  the  thorax  square  or  trape- 
zoidal, and  either  dentated  or  spinous,  or  angular  laterally. 

These  Insects  only  fly  towards  evening  or  at  night,  and  always  remain 
on  trees.  Certain  species  foreign  to  Europe  are  remarkable  for  their  great 
size,  and  that  of  their  mandibles.  The  larva  of  the  P.  cervicornis,  which 
lives  in  the  wood  of  the  Gossampinus,  is  eaten 

2.  The  Cerambycini  have  a  very  apparent  labrum  extending 
across  the  whole  width  of  the  anterior  extremity  of  the  head;  their 
two  maxillary  lobes  are  very  distinct  and  salient;  their  mandibles  of 
an  ordinary  size,  and  similar  or  but  little  different  in  both  sexes; 
their  eyes  always  emarginated  and  surrounding,  at  least  partially, 
the  base  of  the  antennae,  which  are  usually  as  long  as  the  body  or 
longer;  the  thighs,  or  the  four  anterior  ones  at  least,  are  commonly 
in  the  form  of  an  ovoid  or  oval  club,  narrowed  into  a  pedicle  at  base. 

The  various  genera  of  modern  entomologists  may  all  be  united  in 
the  genus. 

Cerambyx. 
C.  heros.  Fab.  Length  one  inch  and  a  half;  black;  extremity  of  the  elytra 
brown  and  prolonged  into  a  small  tooth  at  the  suture;  thorax  extremely 
rugose  and  with  a  pointed  or  splniform  tubercle  on  each  side;  antennx 
simple.  Common  in  all  the  warm  and  temperate  parts  of  Europe.  The 
larva  bores  deep  holes  in  the  Oak,  and  Is  perhaps  the  Cossus  of  the  ancients. 

We  will  terminate  this  tribe  with  Insects,  which,  in  relation  to 
their  palpi,  form  of  their  head,  thorax  and  elytra,  as  well  as  in  their 
proportions,  present  remarkable  exceptions  or  anomalies. 

We  will  commence  with  those  in  which  the  form  of  the  thorax  is 
very  analogous  to  that  of  the  preceding  ones. 

Obrium,   Meg. 
Is  characterized  as  follows:  the  head  rounded,  and  not  prolonged  anteriorly 


414  INSECTA. 

in  the  manner  of  a  snout;  palpi  filiform,  the  last  joint  terminating  ina  point; 
antennae  long'  and  setaceous;  thorax  long,  narrow,  almost  cylindrical,  or 
forming  a  truncated  oval. 

Rhinotragus,  Dalm. 
Differs  from  the  preceding  one  in  the  head,  which  is  narrowed  and  pro- 
longed anteriorly  in  the  manner  of  a  snout;  in  the  palpi  of  which  the  last 
joint  is  rather  thicker  than  the  preceding  ones,  and  truncated  at  the  end; 
in  the  antennae,  shorter  than  the  body,  slightly  dilated  and  somewhat  ser- 
rated at  the  extremity;  and  in  the  almost  orbicular  thorax. 

Necydalis,  Lin. 
The  only  one  of  this  tribe  in  which  the  elytra  are  either  very  short,  and 
squamiform,  or  prolonged,  as  usual,  to  the  extremity  of  the  abdomen,  but 
abruptly  contracted  a  little  beyond  their  origin,  then  much  narrowed,  and 
terminating  in  a  point,  or  subulate.  Their  abdomen  is  long,  narrow,  con- 
tracted, and  as  if  pediculated  at  base.  The  wings  are  folded  at  their  ex. 
tremity. 

Certain  insects  generally  proper  to  the  African  islands,  New  Hol- 
land, New  Ireland  and  New  Zealand,  ambiguous  in  several  respects, 
and  which,  in  a  natural  order,  should  perhaps  be  placed  between 
the  Lamiariae  and  the  Lepturetae,  will  terminate  the  division  of  the 
Cerambycini. 

Their  palpi  are  almost  filiform,  the  last  joint  almost  cylindrical 
and  somewhat  attenuated  towards  the  base;  their  thorax  is  usually 
smooth  or  but  slightly  uneven,  without  acute  tubercles,  and  becomes 
widened  posteriorly,  or  presents  the  form  of  a  trapezium  or  trun- 
cated cone,  as  in  the  last  tribe  of  this  family;  the  abdomen  in 
the  greater  number  is  almost  in  the  form  of  a  reversed  triangle,  and 
the  elytra  are  truncated  at  the  extremity. 

These  Insects  form  four  genera.  Distichocera,  Tmesisfemus, 
Tragocerus,  and  Leptocera. 

The  Longicornes  of  our  third  tribe,  that  of  the  LAMiAKiiE,  are 
distinguished  by  their  vertical  head,  and  by  their  palpi,  which  are 
filiform  or  hardly  larger  at  the  extremity,  and  terminated  by  a  joint 
more  or  less  ovoid  and  tapering  to  a  point.  The  outer  lobe  of  the 
maxillas  is  slightly  narrowed  at  the  end,  and  curved  on  the  inner 
division.  The  antennae  are  most  frequently  setaceous  and  simple, 
and  the  thorax,  exclusive  of  the  lateral  tubercles  or  spines,  is  nearly 
of  an  equal  width  throughout.  Some  species  are  apterous,  a  char- 
acter exhibited  by  no  other  division  of  this  family. 


COLEOPTERA.  415 

ACROCINUS,  Illig. 
Distinguished  from  all  the  Longicornes,  by  the  thorax,  each  side  of  which 
is  terminated  by  a  movable  tubercle,  terminating*  in  a  point,  or  by  a  spine. 
The  body  is  flattened,  and  the  thorax  transversal;  the  antennse  are  long  and 
slender,  and  the  anterior  legs  longer  than  the  others;  the  elytra  are  trun- 
cated at  the  end  and  terminated  by  two  teeth,  the  exterior  of  which  is  the 
strongest. 

A.  longimanus;  known  by  the  vulgar  name  of  the  Cayenne  Harlequin. 
The  thighs  and  tibiae  of  the  two  anterior  legs  are  very  long  and  slender. 
The  movable  tubercles  of  the  thorax  are  terminated  by  a  strong  spine,  and 
the  elytra  are  beautifully  variegated  with  grey,  red,  and  black. 

All  the  remaining  Lamiaria  compose  but  the  single  genus 

Lamia, 
Which  we  will  separate  into  two  sections:  those  In  which  the  sides  of  the 
thorax  are  sometimes  tuberculous  or  rugose  and  sometimes  spinous,  and 
those  in  which  it  is  smooth  and  cylindrical. 

They  are  arranged  under  various  subgenera,  such  as  Acanthocinus,  Tetra- 
opes,  Monochamus,  Saperda,  &c. 

la  the  fourth  and  last  tribe,  that  of  the  Lepturet^,  we  find  Lon- 
gicornes  in  which  the  eyes  are  rounded,  entire,  or  scarcely  emargi- 
nated,  and  where,  in  this  case,  the  antennae  are  inserted  before,  or 
at  most  at  the  anterior  extremity  of  this  slight  emargination.  The 
head  is  always  inclined  posteriorly  behind  the  eyes  in  several,  or 
abruptly  narrowed  at  its  junction  with  the  thorax,  in  the  manner  of 
a  neck;  the  thorax  is  conical  or  trapezoidal  and  narrowed  before. 
The  elytra  become  gradually  narrower. 

This  tribe  forms  the  genus 

Leptura,  Lin., 
With  the  exception  of  certain  species  which  belong  to  the  preceding  tribes 
and  to  the  Donacise.  In  Leptura  proper  the  head  is  abruptly  narrowed 
immediately  behind  the  eyes.  The  antennae,  inserted  near  the  anterior 
extremity  of  their  internal  emargination,  are  remote  at  base.  The  two  emi- 
nences from  which  they  rise  are  almost  confounded  in  one  plane.  The 
thorax  is  almost  always  smooth  or  without  lateral  tubercles. 


416  INSECTA. 

FAMILY  V. 

EUPODA. 

Our  fifth  family  of  the  tetramerous  Coleoptera  is  composed  of 
Insects,  the  first  of  which  so  closely  approach  the  last  Longicornes 
that  they  were  confounded  both  by  Linnaeus  and  GeoflTroy,  and  the 
last  are  so  closely  allied  to  the  Chrysomelae,  the  type  of  the  follow- 
ing family,  that  the  first  of  those  naturalists  places  them  in  that  ge- 
nus. The  organs  of  manducation  present  the  same  affinities.  Thus 
in  the  first,  the  ligula  is  membranous,  bifid  or  bilobate,  as  in  the 
Longicornes;  their  maxillae  also  greatly  resemble  those  of  these 
latter;  but  in  the  last  this  ligula  is  almost  square  or  rounded,  and 
analogous  to  that  of  the  Cyclica. 

The  maxillary  lobes,  however,  are  membranous,  or  but  slightly 
coriaceous,  whitish  or  yellowish;  the  external  one  is  widened  near 
the  extremity,  &c.  The  posterior  thighs  are  strongly  inflated  in  a 
great  many,  and  hence  the  denomination  of  the  family. 

All  these  Insects  have  wings,  and  are  found  on  the  stems  or  leaves 
of  various  plants,  but,  so  far  as  regards  a  great  number  of  species 
that  inhabit  France,  on  those  of  the  Liliacere  particularly.  The 
larvae  of  some — the  Donacise — attack  the  internal  part  of  the  roots 
of  aquatic  plants,  on  which  we  find  the  perfect  Insect.  Those  of 
several  others  live  exposed,  but  they  cover  themselves  with  matters 
with  which  they  form  a  sort  of  case  or  scabbard,  like  that  of  the 
Cassidae. 

We  will  divide  this  family  into  two  tribes: 

The  first,  that  of  the  Sageides,  is  composed,  as  its  name  indi- 
cates, of  the  genus 

Sagra. 

The  mandibles  terminate  in  a  sharp  point.  The  ligula  is  profoundly  emar- 
ginate  or  bilobate.  The  Sagrse  properly  so  called,  originally  designated 
by  the  name  oi  Alurnx,  are  exclusively  confined  to  certain  parts  of  southern 
Africa,  Ceylon  and  China.  Their  palpi  are  terminated  by  an  ovoid  joint, 
the  divisions  of  the  ligula  are  short,  the  thorax  is  cylindrical,  the  antennae 
are  almost  filiform,  longer  than  the  head  and  thorax,  with  their  inferior 
joints  shorter  than  the  others,  and  the  four  anterior  tibiae  tolerably  thick, 
but  slightly  elongated,  angular  and  straight.     These  Insects  have  a  uniform 


COLEOPTERA.  417 

but  very  brilliant  colour,  green,  golden,  or  a  fulgid-red,  with  a  slight  mix- 
ture of  violet. 
There  are  three  subgenera,  Megalopus,  Orsodacna  and  Psammcecus. 

The  second  tribe,  or  that  of  the  Ckiocerides,  is  distinguished 
from  the  preceding  by  the  mandibles,  the  extremity  of  which  is 
truncated  or  presents  two  or  three  teeth,  and  by  the  ligula,  which  is 
entire  or  but  shghtly  emarginated. 

It  is  composed  of  the  genus 

Ceioceris,  Geoff. 
Which  is  now  divided  into  Donacia,  Hxmonia,  Petauristes,  Crioeeria  pro- 
per, &c. 

FAMILY  VI. 

CYCLICA. 

In  our  sixth  family  of  the  Tetramera,  where  the  three  first  joints 
of  the  tarsi  are  still  spongy,  or  furnished  with  pellets  beneath,  with 
the  penultimate  divided  into  two  lobes,  and  where  the  antennae  are 
filiform  or  somewhat  thicker  towards  the  end,  we  observe  a  body 
usually  rounded,  and  in  those  few  where  it  is  oblong,  with  the  base 
of  the  thorax  of  the  width  of  the  elytra  and  maxillae,  whose  exterior 
division,  by  its  narrow,  almost  cylindrical  form  and  darker  colour, 
has  the  appearance  of  a  palpus;  the  interior  division  is  broader  and 
destitute  of  the  little  squamous  nail.  The  ligula  is  almost  squareor 
oval,  entire  or  widely  emarginated. 

These  Insects  are  generally  small,  and  are  frequently  ornamented 
with  brilliant  and  metallic  colours;  their  body  is  smooth  or  destitute 
of  hairs.  They  are  mostly  slow  and  timid,  letting  themselves  fall 
to  the  ground  the  moment  we  attempt  to  seize  them,  or  folding  their 
antennae  and  feet  close  to  their  body.  Several  species  are  good 
jumpers.     The  females  are  extremely  prolific. 

If  we  take  into  consideration  the  different  habits  of  their  larvaa, 
we  will  find  that  the  Cyclica  are  divided  into  four  principal  sections: 

In  the  first,  or  the  Cassidarl;e,  the  antennae  are  inserted  in  the 

superior  part  of  the  head,  and  are  approximated,  straight,  short, 

filiform  and  almost  cylindrical,  or  gradually  enlarged  towards  the 

extremity.     The  mouth,  altogether  underneath,  and  with  short  and 

3  C 


418  INSECTA. 

almost  filiform  palpi,  is  sometimes  arched  and  sometimes  partly  re- 
ceived into  the  cavity  of  the  prassternum.  The  eyes  are  ovoid  or 
round.  The  legs  are  contractile  and  short,  and  the  tarsi  flattened; 
the  lobes  of  the  penultimate  joint  completely  enclose  the  last. 

The  body  being  flat  above,  these  Insects,  owing  to  the  disposition 
of  their  tarsi,  are  enabled  to  glue  themselves  to  the  surface  of  leaves 
and  to  remain  there  without  motion;  besides  this,  the  body  is  most 
commonly  orbicular  or  oval,  and  overlapped  all  round  by  the  thorax 
and  elytra.  The  head  is  concealed  under  the  thorax,  or  received 
into  its  anterior  emargination.  Their  colours  are  various,  and  are 
prettily  distributed  in  the  form  of  spots,  points,  and  streaks.  Such 
of  their  larvae  as  are  known  to  us  cover  themselves  with  dirt. 

The  Cassidariae  are  composed  of  two  genera.     In  the  first,  or 

HisPA,  Lin. 

The  body  is  oblong-,  the  head  is  entirely  exposed  and  free,  and  the  thorax 
forms  a  trapezium.  The  mandibles  have  but  two  or  three  teeth;  the  exte- 
rior maxillary  lobe  is  shorter  than  the  inner  one;  the  antenna  are  filiform 
and  pectinated  anteriorly.  The  Hispie  properly  so  called,  have  short  man- 
dibles terminated  by  two  or  three  small  and  almost  equal  teeth.  America 
produces  a  great  number  of  species.  In  some  the  superior  surface  of  the 
body,  and  even  a  portion  of  the  antennje,  are  densely  spinous. 

Cassida,  Lin.  Fab. 
The  Cassid»  are  distinguished  from  the  Hispse  by  the  following  characters. 
The  body  is  orbicular  or  almost  ovoid,  and  in  some  few  nearly  square. 
The  thorax,  more  or  less  semicircular,  or  forming  the  segment  of  a  circle, 
entirely  conceals  and  covers  the  head,  or  encloses  it  in  an  anterior  emargi- 
nation. The  elytra,  frequently  elevated  in  the  region  of  the  scutellum, 
project  beyond  the  body.  The  mandibles  present  four  teeth  at  least,  and 
the  exterior  maxillary  lobe  is  at  least  as  long  as  the  inner  one. 

In  the  second  tribe,  or  the  Chrysomelin^e,  the  antennae  are  re- 
mote, and  inserted  before  the  eyes,  or  near  their  internal  extremity. 
These  Insects  never  leap.  Those  species  in  which  we  find  the 
above  mentioned  characters,  form,  as  in  the  earlier  entomological 
works  of  Fabricius,  two  genera.     The  first,  or 

Cryptocephalus, 
Is  composed  of  Chrysomelinx,  in  which  the  head  is  plunged  vertically 
into  an  arched  or  hood-like  thorax,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  body,  most 
commonly  in  the  form  of  a  short  cylinder,  or  almost  ovoid  and  narrowed 


COLEOPTEHA.  419 

anteriorly,  when  viewed  from  above,  appears  as  if  truncated  at  that  ex- 
tremity and  destitute  of  a  head.  The  antennae  of  some  are  more  or  less 
serrated  or  pectinated;  those  of  others  are  long  and  filiform.  The  last 
joint  of  the  palpi  is  always  ovoid. 

Chrysomela, 

The  body  is  usually  ovoid  or  nearlj'  oval,  and  the  head  salient,  projecting', 
or  simply  inclined;  where  the  antennae  are  simple,  about  half  the  length  of 
the  body,  and  most  frequently  granose  and  insensibly  enlarged  towards 
the  extremity. 

C.populi,  L.  Length  from  five  to  six  lines;  oval,  oblong,  and  blue;  ely- 
tra fulvous  or  red,  and  the  inner  angle  of  their  extremity  marked  with  a 
black  dot.  On  the  Willow  and  Poplar;  its  larva  lives  on  the  same  trees, 
and  frequently  in  society. 

In  the  third  and  last  tribe  of  the  Cyclica,  thatof  the  GALKRUCiTiE, 
we  find  antennae  always  at  least  as  long  as  the  half  of  the  body,  of 
equal  thickness  throughout,  or  insensibly  thicker  towards  their  ex- 
tremity, inserted  between  the  eyes,  at  but  little  distance  from  the 
mouth,  and  usually  approximated  at  base,  and  near  a  small  longitu- 
dinal carina.  The  maxillary  pajlpi,  thickest  about  the  middle,  ter- 
minate in  two  joints,  in  the  form  of  a  cone,  but  opposed  or  united 
at  base,  the  last  short,  and  either  truncated  or  obtuse  or  pointed. 
The  body  is  sometimes  ovoid  or  oval,  and  sometimes  almost  he- 
mispherical. In  several,  and  particularly  the  smaller  species,  the 
posterior  thighs  are  very  stout,  which  enables  them  to  leap. 

This  tribe  is  composed  of  the  genus 

Galeeuca, 
Which  is  divided  into  two  principal  sections;  those  which  are  destitute  of 
the  power  of  leaping  or  the  Isopoda,  and  the  Jumpers  or  the  Anisopoda. 

G.  calmariensis.  Three  lines  in  length;  yellowish  or  greenish  above;  three 
black  spots  on  the  thorax;  another  with  a  stripe  of  the  same  colour  on  each 
elytron. — This  species,  together  with  its  larva,  is  found  on  the  Elm;  in  cer- 
tain seasons,  when  unusually  abundant,  it  strips  these  trees  of  their  foliage, 
and  does  as  much  mischief  as  certain  caterpillars. 

The  jumping  Galerucitse,  or  those  whose  posterior  thighs  are  inflated 
and  which  are  distributed  by  Fabricius  among  the  genera  Chrysomela,  Gale- 
ruca  and  Crioceris,  are  united  in  one,  that  ofAltica  or  Haltica,  in  the  systems 
of  Geoffroy,  Olivier  and  llliger.  These  Insects  are  very  small,  but  are  orna- 
mented with  various  or  brilliant  colours;  they  jump  with  great  quickness 
and  to  a  very  great  height,  and  frequently  destroy  the  leaves  of  those  plants 
on  which  they  feed.  Their  larvx  devour  the  parenchyma,  and  there  un- 
dergo their  metamorphosis.     Certain  species,  those  particularly  which  are 


420  INSECTA. 

commonly  termed  garden  fleas,  are  very  injurious  in  both  states  to  our 
kitchen  gardens.  Of  all  countries,  South  America  furnishes  the  greatest 
number. 

Altica,  Lat. 

In  the  true  Alticac  the  head  is  salient,  and  the  posterior  tibiae  are  truncat- 
ed at  their  extremity  and  without  any  particular  prolongation  or  forked 
spine;  the  tarsus  originates  from  this  extremity,  and  its  length  is  not  equal 
to  half  that  of  the  tibia. 

A.  oleracea.  About  two  lines  in  length;  oval,  elongated;  green  or  bluish; 
a  transverse  impression  on  the  thorax;  elytra  finely  punctured.  On  vege- 
tables.    It  is  the  largest  of  the  European  species. 


FAMILY  VII. 
CLAVIPALPI. 

The  Insects  of  our  seventh  and  last  family  of  the  Tetramera  are 
distinguished  from  all  those  of  the  same  section,  having,  like  them, 
the  under  part  of  the  three  first  joints  of  the  tarsi  furnished  with 
brushes  and  the  penultimate  bifid,  by  their  antennae,  which  are  ter- 
minated in  a  very  distinct  and  perforated  club,  as  well  as  by  their 
maxillae,  armed  on  the  inner  side  by  a  nail  or  corneous  tooth.  In 
some  ievf^  the  joints  of  the  tarsi  are  entire,  but  they  are  removed 
from  the  other  Tetramera  with  analogous  tarsi  by  their  body,  which 
is  almost  globular  and  contracts  into  a  ball. 

Their  body  is  most  commonly  of  a  rounded  form,  and  frequently 
even  very  convex  and  hemispherical;  the  antennae  are  shorter  than 
the  body,  the  mandibles  emarginated  or  dentated  at  the  extremity, 
and  the  palpi  terminated  by  a  large  joint;  the  last  joint  of  the  max- 
illary palpi  is  very  large,  transversal,  compressed,  and  almost  lunate. 
The  form  of  their  organs  of  manducation  shows  them  to  be  gnawers, 
and  in  fact  the  species  indigenous  to  Europe  are  found  in  the  Boleti 
which  grow  on  the  trunks  of  trees,  under  their  bark,  &c. 

Some  have  the  penultimate  joint  of  the  tarsi  bilobate,  and  do  not 
contract  themselves  into  a  ball. 

They  may  be  reunited  in  the  single  genus 

Erotylus,  Fab. 

In  the  Erotyli  properly  so  called,  the  intermediate  joints  of  the  antennae  are 
almost  cylindrical,  and  the  club ,  formed  by  the  last  ones,  is  oblong;  the  in- 
terior and  corneous  division  of  their  maxillae  is  terminated  by  two  teeth. 


COLEOPTERA.  421 

They  are  peculiar  to  South  America. 

In  the  fourth  section  of  the  Coleoptera,  that  of  the  Trimera, 
there  are  but  three  joints  to  all  the  tarsi.  The  Trimera  form  three 
families.  Those  of  the  two  first  are  closely  related  to  the  last  of 
thQ  Tetramera.  Their  antennae,  always  composed  of  eleven  joints, 
terminate  in  a  club  formed  by  the  three  last,  which  is  compressed 
and  in  the  form  of  a  reversed  cone  or  triangle.  The  first  joint  of 
the  tarsi  is  always  very  distinct;  the  penultimate  is  usually  bilobate, 
and  the  last,  which  presents  a  knot  at  base,  is  always  terminated  by 
two  hooks.  The  elytra  entirely  cover  the  abdomen  and  are  not 
truncated. 

FAMILY  I. 

FUNGICOL^. 

In  our  first  family  of  this  section  we  observe  antennae  longer  than 
the  head  and  thorax  united,  an  oval  body,  and  a  trapezoidal  thorax. 
The  maxillary  palpi  are  filiform  or  a  little  thicker  at  the  end,  but 
are  terminated  by  a  very  large  and  securiform  joint.  The  penulti- 
mate joint  of  the  tarsi  is  always  deeply  bilobate. 

This  family  may  be  reduced  to  one  great  genus. 

Etjmorphus, 
In  the  Eumorphi  proper,  the  club  of  the  antenns  is  abrupt,  compact, 
strongly  compressed,  and  in  the  form  of  a  reversed  triangle.     The  maxil- 
lary palpi  are  filiform,  and  the  two  last  joints  of  the  labials  united  form  a 
triangular  club. 

They  are  all  peculiar  to  America  and  the  East  Indies. 

FAMILY  II. 

APHIDIPHAGL 

This  family  consists  mostly  of  Insects  which  have  an  almost  hem- 
ispherical body,  and  a  very  short,  transversal,  and  almost  lunate 
thorax.  Their  antennae  terminate  in  a  compressed  and  obconical 
club,  composed  by  the  three  last  joints,  and  are  shorter  than  the 
thorax.     The  last  joint  of  the  maxillary  palpi  is  very  large  and  se- 


422  INSECTA. 

curiform,   and   Ibe  penultimate  joint  of  the   tarsi   is   profoundly 
bilobate.  ' 

In  the  other  Trimera  of  the  same  family,  the  joints  of  the  tarsi 
are  simple,  and  the  penultimate  at  least  is  slightly  bifid,  which,  with 
some  other  characters,  distinguishes  these  Insects  from  the  Fun- 
gicolse. 

COCCINELLA. 

In  Coccinella  proper,  the  body  is  almost  hemispherical,  the  thorax  very 
short,  almost  lunate,  the  margin  not  recurved  or  but  very  slightly,  and  the 
penultimate  joint  of  the  tarsi  profoundly  bilobate. 

Various  species  of  this  genus  are  extremely  common  on  the  trees  and 
plants  of  our  gardens,  and  frequently  in  our  houses;  they  are  known  by  the 
names  of  Cow-bug,  Lady-bug,  &c.  They  feed  on  Aphides,  their  larva, 
which  in  form  and  their  metamorphoses  greatly  resemble  those  of  the  Chry- 
somelje,  employing  the  same  aliment. 

There,  the  body  is  much  flattened,  in  the  form  of  a  shield,  and  the  head 
is  concealed  under  an  almost  semicu-cular  thorax.  The  antennae  present 
distinctly  but  nine  joints,  and  terminate  in  an  elongated  club.  The  joints 
of  the  tarsi  are  entire.  The  praesternum  forms  a  sort  of  chin-cloth  ante- 
riorly.    Such  are  the  characters  of  the  genus 

CLYrEASTEE,  Audersch. 
They  are  found  under  the  bark  of  trees,  and  under  stones. 


FAMILY  III. 
PSELAPHII. 

These  Insects,  which  constitute  our  third  and  last  family  of  the 
Trimera,  in  their  short  and  truncated  elytra  that  only  cover  part  of 
the  abdomen,  bear  a  certain  resemblance  to  the  Bachelytra,  and 
particularly  to  the  Aleocharas.  This  last  part  of  their  body,  how- 
ever, is  much  shorter,  wide,  very  obtuse  and  rounded  posteriorly. 
The  antennae,  terminated  by  a  club  or  thicker  towards  the  extre- 
mity, sometimes  consist  of  but  six  joints.  The  maxillary  palpi  are 
usually  very  large,  and  all  the  joints  of  the  tarsi  are  entire;  the  first, 
much  shorter  than  the  following  ones,  is  scarcely  visible  at  the  first 
glance,  and  the  last  is  most  commonly  terminated  by  a  simple  hook. 

Thej  are  found  on  the  ground  under  the  debris  of  vegetable  mat- 
ters: some  inhabit  certain  ant-hills. 

Those  which  have  eleven  joints  in  the  antennas  form  the  genua 


COLEOPTERA.  423 

PsELAPHTJs,  Herbst. 
In  the  last  of  the  Pselaphii  we  observe  this  peculiarity — their  antennx  con- 
sist of  but  six  joints,  or  even  one.    They  form  the  genus 

Claviger, 

Where  the  antennae  consist  of  six  distinct  joints.  Tliese  Insects  have  no 
apparent  eyes.  The  maxillary  palpi  are  very  short,  without  distinct  articu- 
lations, and  with  two  terminal  hooks.  The  two  first  joints  of  the  tarsi  are 
very  short;  the  third  and  last  is  very  long-,  with  a  single  hook  at  the 
extremity. 

These  Pselaphii  are  found  under  stones  in  bari'en  localities,  and  even  in 
the  hills  of  certain  small,  yellow  Ants. 


ORDER  VI. 

ORTHOPTERA  (1) 

In  the  Insects  of  this  order,  we  find  the  body  generally  less  indu- 
rated than  in  the  Coleoptera,  and  soft,  semi-membranous  elytra  fur- 
nished with  nervures,  which,  in  the  greater  number,  do  not  join  at 
the  suture  in  a  straight  line.  Their  wings  are  folded  longitudinally, 
most  frequently  in  the  manner  of  a  fan,  and  divided  by  membranous 
nervures  running  in  the  same  direction.  The  maxillas  are  always 
terminated  by  a  dentated  and  horny  piece  covered  with  a  galea,  an 
appendage  corresponding  to  the  exterior  division  of  the  maxillas  of 
the  Coleoptera.     They  have  also  a  sort  of  tongue  or  epiglottis. 

The  Orthoptera  undergo  a  semi-metamorphosis,  of  which  all  the 
mutations  are  reduced  to  the  growth  and  development  of  the  elytra 
and  wings,  that  are  always  visible  in  a  rudimental  state  in  the  nymph. 
As  both  this  nymph  and  the  larva  are  otherwise  exactly  similar  to 
the  perfect  Insect,  they  walk  and  feed  in  the  same  way. 

The  mouth  of  the  Orthoptera  consists  of  a  labrum,  two  mandi- 
bles, as  many  maxillae,  and  four  palpi;  those  of  the  jaws  always  have 
five  joints;  whilst  the  labials,  as  in  the  Coleoptera,  present  but  three. 
The  mandibles  are  always  very  strong  and  corneous,  and  the  ligula 
is  constantly  divided  into  two  or  four  thongs.  The  form  of  the  an- 
tennae varies  less  than  in  the  Coleoptera,  but  they  are  usually  cora- 


(1)  Straight-winged. 


424  INSECTA. 

posed  of  a  greater  number  of  joints.  Several,  besides  their  reticu- 
lated eyes,  have  two  or  three  ocelli.  The  inferior  surface  of  the 
first  joints  of  the  tarsi  is  frequently  fleshy  or  membranous.  Many 
females  are  furnished  with  a  true  perforator  formed  of  two  blades, 
frequently  enclosed  in  a  common  envelope,  by  means  of  which  they 
deposit  their  eggs.  The  posterior  extremity  of  the  body,  in  most  of 
them,  is  provided  with  appendages. 

All  the  known  Orthoptera,  without  exception,  are  terrestrial, 
even  in  their  two  first  states  of  existence.  Some  are  carnivorous 
or  omniverous,  but  the  greater  number  feed  on  living  plants. 

We  will  divide  the  Orthoptera  into  two  great  families. 

In  those  which  compose  the  first,  all  the  legs  are  similar,  and  only 
adapted  for  running, — they  are  the  Cursoria  or  runners.  In  those 
which  constitute  the  second,  the  posterior  pair  of  thighs  are  much 
larger  than  the  others,  thereby  enabling  them  to  leap.  Beside  this, 
the  males  produce  a  sharp  or  stridulous  noise — they  are  the  Salta- 
toria  or  jumpers. 

FAMILY  I. 

CURSORIA. 

In  this  family  the  posterior  legs,  as  well  as  the  others,  are  solely 
adapted  for  running.  Almost  all  these  Insects  have  their  elytra  and 
wings  laid  horizontally  on  the  body;  the  females  are  destitute  of  a 
corneous  ovipositor.     They  form  three  genera:  in  the  first  or  the 

FoKFicuLA,  Lin. 

There  are  three  joints  in  the  tarsi;  the  wings  are  plaited  like  a  fan,  and 
folded  transversely  under  very  short  and  crustaceous  elytra  with  a  straight 
suture;  the  body  is  linear,  with  two  large,  squamous,  mobile  pieces,  which 
form  a  forceps  at  its  posterior  extremity. 

These  Insects  are  very  common  in  cool  and  damp  places,  frequently 
collect  in  troops  under  stones  and  the  bark  of  trees,  are  very  injurious  to 
our  cultivated  fruits,  devour  even  their  dead  congeners,  and  defend  them- 
selves with  their  pincers,  which  frequently  vary  in  form,  according  to  the 
sex.  It  has  been  thought  that  they  insinuate  themselves  into  the  ear,  and 
to  this  they  owe  their  name  of  Ear-wigs. 

Blatta,  Lin. 
Coeftroae/tcs  have  five  joints  to  all  the  tarsi.     The  wings  are  only  plaited 


ORTHOPTERA.  425 

longitudinaUy,  the  head  is  concealed  under  the  plate  of  the  thorax,  and  the 
body  oval,  orbicular  and  flattened. 

The  Blattac  are  very  active  nocturnal  Insects,  some  of  which  live  in  the 
interior  of  our  houses,  particularly  the  kitchen,  in  bake-houses  and  flour 
mills;  the  others  inhabit  the  country.  They  are  extremely  voracious,  and 
consume  all  sorts  of  provisions. 

Mantis,  Lin. 

Here  also  we  find  five  joints  in  all  the  tarsi,  and  wings  simply  plaited  lon- 
gitudinally; but  the  head  is  exposed  and  the  body  narrow  and  elongated. 

They  also  differ  from  the  Blattse  in  their  short  palpi  terminating  in  a 
point,  and  in  their  quadrifid  ligula. 

These  Insects,  which  are  only  found  in  southern  and  temperate  climates, 
remain  on  plants  or  trees,  frequently  resemble  their  leaves  and  branches  in 
the  form  and  colour  of  the  body,  and  are  diurnal.  Some  of  them  are  ra- 
pacious and  others  herbivorous.  Their  eggs  are  usually  enclosed  in  a 
capsule  formed  of  some  gummy  substance  which  hardens  by  exposure  to 
the  air,  and  divided  internally  into  several  cells;  it  is  sometimes  in  the  form 
of  an  oval  shell,  and  at  others  in  that  of  a  seed,  with  ridges  and  angles,  and 
even  bristled  with  little  spines.  The  female  glues  it  on  a  plant  or  other 
body  raised  above  the  earth. 

M.  religiosa,  L.  So  called  from  the  position  to  which  it  raises  its  anterior 
legs  or  arms,  which  resembles  that  of  supplication.  The  Turks  entertain  a 
religious  respect  for  this  animal,  and  another  species  is  held  in  still  greater 
veneration  by  the  Hottentots. 

In  the  others,  the  anterior  legs  resemble  the  following  ones.  The  eyes 
are  simple,  very  indistinct,  or  null;  and  the  first  segment  of  the  trunk  is 
shorter,  or  at  most  as  long  as  the  following  one. 

These  Insects  have  singular  forms  resembling  twigs  of  trees  or  leaves. 
They  appear  to  feed  exclusively  on  vegetables,  and  like  several  Grylli  are 
coloured  hke  the  plants  on  which  they  live.  There  is  frequently  a  great 
diff'erence  between  the  sexes. 

They  form  the  subgenus 

Spectbum,  Stoll, 
Which  has  been  again  divided  into  others. 


FAMILY  II. 

SALTATORIA. 

The  posterior  legs  of  the  Insects  which  compose  our  second  fa- 
mily of  the  Orthoptera,  are  remarkable  for  the  largeness  of  their 
thighs,  and  for  their  spinous  tibias,  which  are  adapted  for  saltation. 

3  D 


426  INSECTA. 

The  males  summon  their  mates  by  a  stridulous  noise,  vulgarly 
termed  singing.  This  is  sometimes  produced  by  rapidly  rubbing 
against  its  antagonist  an  interior  and  more  membranous  portion  of 
each  elytron  which  resembles  a  piece  of  talc.  It  is  sometimes  ex- 
cited by  a  similar  motion  of  their  posterior  thighs  upon  the  elytra 
and  wings,  acting  like  the  bow  of  a  violin. 

The  greater  number  of  the  females  deposit  their  eggs  in  the  earth. 

This  family  is  composed  of  the  genus 

Gryllus,  Lin. 

This  great  genus  which  formerly  comprised  the  various  Insects  commonly 
teiTOed  here  Grasshoppers,  Crickets,  Katy-dids,  Sec,  is  now^  divided  into 
various  genera  and  subgenera.     Among  the  most  noted  of  these  we  have 

Grtllo-Taipa,  Lat. 

Where  the  tibiae  and  tarsi  of  the  two  anterior  legs  are  wide,  flat  and 
dentated,  resembling  hands,  or  are  adapted  for  digging.  The  other  tarsi  are 
of  the  ordinary  form,  and  terminated  by  two  hooks;  the  antenna:  are  more 
slender  at  the  end,  elongated  and  multiarticulated. 

G.  vulgaris.  (The  Mole-Cricket).  Length  one  inch  and  a  half;  brown 
above,  reddish-yellow  beneath;  anterior  tibije  with  four  teeth;  wings  double 
the  length  of  the  eyltra.  This  species  is  but  too  well  known  by  the  mis- 
chief it  effects  in  gardens  and  cultivated  grounds.  It  lives  in  the  earth, 
where  its  two  anterior  legs,  which  act  like  a  saw  and  shovel,  or  like  those 
of  a  Mole,  open  a  passage  for  it.  It  cuts  and  separates  the  roots  of  plants, 
but  not  so  much  for  the  purpose  of  eating  them  as  to  clear  its  road,  for  it 
feeds,  as  it  appears,  on  Worms  and  Insects.  The  cry  of  the  male,  which  is 
only  heard  at  night,  is  soft  and  agreeable. 

In  June  and  July,  the  female  digs  a  rounded,  smooth,  subterranean  cavity, 
about  six  inches  in  depth,  in  which  she  deposits  from  two  to  four  hundred 
eggs;  this  nest,  with  the  gallery  that  leads  to  it,  resembles  a  bottle  with  a 
curved  neck.     The  young  remain  together  for  some  time. 

AcRTDiuM  proper. 

They  fly  by  starts,  and  to  a  considerable  height.  The  wings  are  fre- 
quently very  prettily  coloured,  particularly  with  red  and  blue,  as  observed 
in  several  species  that  inhabit  France.  The  thorax,  in  some  of  those  tliat 
are  foreign  to  Europe,  frequently  exhibits  crests  and  large  warts,  in  a  word, 
a  singular  variety  of  forms. 

Certain  species,  called  by  travellers  Migratory  Locusts[l),  sometimes 


(1)  The  pupil  must  not  allow  himself  to  be  deceived  bynames.  This 
Insect  is  what  we  commonly  call  a  Grasshopper.  The  Locust,  so  called  in 
this  country,  is  a  totally  different  Insect,  and  belong  to  another  order.  See 
Hemiptera,  genus  Cicada  or  Teitigonia.     Am.  Ed. 


ORTHOPTERA.  '  427 

unite  in  incaculable  numbers  and  emigrate,  resembling  in  their  passag-e 
through  the  air,  a  tliick  and  heavy  cloud;  wherever  they  alight  all  signs  of 
vegetation  quickly  disappear,  and  a  desert  is  speedily  created.  Their 
death  frequently  forms  another  scoui-ge,  as  the  air  becomes  poisoned  by 
the  frightful  mass  of  their  decomposing  bodies. 

M.  Miot,  in  his  excellent  translation  of  Herodotus,  has  given  it  as  his 
opinion,  that  the  heaps  of  bodies  of  winged  Serpents  which  that  historian 
states  he  saw  in  Egypt,  were  nothing  more  than  masses  of  this  species  of 
Acrydium.     In  this  I  perfectly  agree  with  him. 

These  Insects  are  eaten  in  various  parts  of  Africa,  where  the  inhabitants 
collect  them  for  their  own  use  and  for  commerce.  They  take  away  their 
elytra  and  wings  and  preserve  them  in  brine. 

A  considerable  part  of  Europe  is  frequently  devastated  by  the 

jx.  migratorius.  Length  two  inches  and  a  half;  usually  green,  with  ob- 
scure spots;  elytra  light  brown  spotted  with  black;  a  low  crest  on  the  thorax. 
The  eggs  are  enveloped  in  a  frothy  and  glutinous  flesh-coloured  matter, 
forming  a  cocoon,  which  the  Insect  is  said  to  glue  to  some  plant.  Common 
in  Poland. 

The  south  of  Europe,  Barbary,  Egypt,  &c.,  ai'e  frequently  devastated  in 
like  manner  by  other  species,  some  of  which  are  rather  larger. 


ORDER  VII. 

HEMlPTERA.(l) 

The  Hemiptera,  according  to  our  system,  terminate  the  numerous 
division  of  Insects  which  are  provided  with  elytra,  and  of  all  those, 
are  the  only  ones  which  have  neither  mandibles  nor  maxillas  pro- 
perly so  called.  A  tubular,  articulated,  cylindrical,  or  conical  ap- 
pendage curved  inferiorlj,  or  directed  along  the  pectus,  having  the 
appearance  of  a  kind  of  rostrum,  presents  along  its  superior  surface, 
when  raised,  a  groove  or  canal  from  which  may  be  protruded  three 
rigid,  scaly,  extremely  fine,  and  pointed  setas,  covered  at  base  by  a 
ligula.  These  sets,  when  united,  form  a  sucker  resembling  a  sting, 
sheathed  in  the  tubular  apparatus  we  have  just  described,  where  it 
is  kept  in  situ  by  the  superior  ligula  placed  at  its  base.  The  infe- 
rior seta  consists  of  two  filaments  which  are  united  into  one  at  a 


(I)  Half-winged,  the  Ryngota,  Fab. 


428  INSECTA. 

little  distance  from  their  origin,  so  that  in  reality  the  sucker  is  com- 
posed of  four  pieces. 

The  mouth  of  Hemipterous  Insects  is  only  adapted  for  extracting 
fluids  by  suction;  the  attenuated  stylets  of  which  the  sucker  is  form- 
ed, pierce  the  vessels  of  plants  and  animals,  and  the  nutritious  fluid, 
being  successively  compressed,  is  forced  into  the  internal  canal,  and 
thus  arrives  at  the  oesophagus.  The  sheath  of  this  apparatus  is  at 
these  times  frequently  bent  into  an  angle,  or  becomes  geniculate. 
These  Insects,  like  other  Suctoria,  are  furnished  with  salivary 
vessels. 

In  most  of  the  Insects  which  compose  this  order,  the  elytra  are 
coriaceous  or  crustaceous,  the  posterior  extremity  being  membran- 
ous and  forming  a  sort  of  an  appendage  to  them;  they  almost  always 
decussate;  those  of  the  other  Hemiptera  are  simply  thicker  and 
larger  than  the  wings,  semi-membranous,  like  the  elytra  of  the  Or- 
thoptera,  and  sometimes  opaque  and  coloured,  sometimes  transparent 
and  veined.     There  are  a  few  longitudinal  plicee  in  the  wings. 

Several  have  ocelli,  of  which,  however,  there  are  frequently  but 
two. 

The  Hemiptera  exhibit  the  same  forms  and  habits  in  their  three 
states.  The  only  change  they  experience  consists  in  the  develop- 
ment and  growth  of  the  volume  of  the  body. 

I  divide  this  order  into  two  sections. 

In  the  first,  that  of  the  Heteroptera,  Lat.,  the  rostrum  arises 
from  the  front;  the  elytra  are  membranous  at  the  extremity,  and  the 
first  segment  of  the  trunk,  much  larger  than  the  others,  alone  forms 
the  thorax.  The  elytra  and  wings  are  always  horizontal  or  slightly 
inclined.    This  section  is  composed  of  two  famihes, 

FAMILY  I. 

GEOCORIS^. 

In  this  family  the  antennas  are  exposed,  longer  than  the  head,  and 
inserted  between  the  eyes,  near  their  internal  margin.  There  are 
three  joints  in  the  tarsi,  the  first  of  which  is  sometimes  very  short. 

It  forms  the  genus 

CiMEX,  Lin. 
This  genus  (an  example  of  which  may  be  found  in  our  common  Squash- 


HEMIPTERA.  429 

bug)  is  now  divided  into  forty  or  more  subgenera.  We  all  know  but  too 
well  that  of  CiMEX  proper. 

In  Cimex  proper  the  body  is  very  flat,  but  the  antennoe  terminate  ab- 
ruptly in  the  form  of  a  seta. 

C.  ledularius,  L.  It  is  pretended  that  this  Insect,  vulgai-ly  termed  the 
Bed-hug,  did  not  exist  in  England  previous  to  the  fire  of  London  in  1666, 
and  that  it  was  transported  thither  in  timber  from  America.  With  respect 
to  the  continent  of  Europe,  however,  we  find  that  it  is  mentioned  by 
Dioscorides.  It  has  also  been  asserted  that  this  species  sometimes  acquires 
wings.  It  likewises  harasses  young  Pigeons,  Swallows,  &c.;  but  that  which 
lives  on  these  latter  birds  appears  to  me  to  be  a  different  species. 


FAMILY  II. 

HYDROCORIS^. 

In  our  second  family  of  the  Hemiptera,  the  antennae  are  inserted 
and  concealed  under  the  eyes;  they  are  shorter  than  the  head,  or 
hardly  as  long. 

All  these  Insects  are  aquatic,  carnivorous,  and  seize  others  with 
their  anterior  legs,  which  flex  on  themselves  and  act  as  pincers. 
They  sting  severely. 

Their  tarsi  present  but  one  or  two  joints.  Their  eyes  are  in  ge- 
neral remarkably  large. 

Nepa,  Lin. 
Or  the  Aquatic  Scorpions.    This  genus  is  now  variously  divided.    In 

Nepa  proper,  the  anterior  tarsi  have  but  one  joint,  and  the  four  posterior 
ones  two,  and  where  the  antennse  appear  forked.  The  rostrum  is  curved 
beneath;  the  coxae  of  the  two  anterior  legs  are  short,  and  their  thighs  much 
wider  than  their  other  parts. 

Their  body  is  narrow  and  elongated  and  almost  elliptical.  Their  abdomen 
is  terminated  by  two  setae  which  enable  them  to  respire  in  the  oozy  and 
aquatic  localities  at  the  bottom  of  which  they  live.  Their  eggs  resemble  the 
seed  of  a  plant  of  an  oval  figure,  crowned  with  a  tuft  of  hairs. 

The  other  subgenera  of  theiVepirfes  are  Galgulus,  Naucoris,  Belostoma,  &c. 

The  others — Notonectides — have  their  two  anterior  legs  simply  curved 
underneath,  with  thighs  of  an  ordinary  size,  and  the  tarsi  pointed  and 
densely  ciliated,  or  similar  to  those  of  the  posterior  ones.  Their  body  is 
almost  cylindrical  or  ovoid,  and  tolerably  thick  or  less  depressed  than  in  the 
preceding  Insects.  Their  posterior  legs  are  densely  ciliated,  resemble  oars, 
and  are  terminated  by  two  very  small  and  I'ather  indistinct  hooks.     They 


430  INSECTA. 

swim  or  row  with  great  swiftness,  and  frequently  while  on  their  back. 
They  compose  the  genus 

NoTONECTA,  Lin. 
Which  has  been  divided  into  Corixa  and  Notonecta  proper. 

The  second  section  of  the  Hemiptera,  that  of  the  Homoptera, 
Lat.,  is  distinguished  from  the  preceding  one  by  the  following  char- 
acters: the  rostrum  arises  from  the  lowest  portion  of  the  head,  near 
the  pectus,  or  even  from  the  interval  between  the  two  anterior  legs: 
the  elytra — almost  always  tectiform — are  of  the  same  consistence 
throughout  and  semimembranous,  sometimes  almost  similar  to  the 
wings.  The  three  segments  of  the  trunk  are  united  en  masse,  and 
the  first  is  frequently  shorter  than  the  second. 

All  the  Insects  of  this  section  feed  exclusively  on  vegetable  juices. 
The  females  are  provided  with  a  scaly  ovipositor,  usually  composed 
of  three  dentated  blades,  and  lodged  in  a  groove  with  two  valves. 
They  use  it  as  a  saw  to  produce  openings  in  plants  in  which  they 
deposit  their  eggs.  The  last  Insects  of  this  section  experience  a 
sort  of  complete  metamorphosis. 

I  will  divide  it  into  three  families. 

FAMILY  I. 

CICADARI^. 

This  family  comprises  those  which  have  triarticulated  tarsi,  and 
usually  very  small,  conical,  or  fusiform  antennae,  composed  of  from 
three  to  six  joints,  the  extremely  attenuated  seta  which  terminates 
them  included.  The  females  are  provided  with  a  serrated  ovi- 
positor. 

Some — Singers — have  antennas  composed  of  six  joints,  and  three 
ocelli. 

Cicada,  Oliv. — Tettigonia^  Fab. 
These  Insects,  (our  Locusts),  of  which  the  elytra  are  almost  always  trans- 
parent and  veined,  differ  from  the  following'  ones,  not  only  in  the  composi- 
tion of  their  antennx  and  the  number  of  the  ocelli,  but  in  the  absence  of 
the  faculty  of  leaping,  and  in  the  music  of  the  males;  which,  in  heat  of 
summer,  the  epoch  of  their  appearance,  produce  that  loud  and  monotonous 


HEMIPTERA.  431 

sound  which  has  induced  authors  to  designate  them  by  the  name  of  Canta- 
trices  or  Singers. 

The  organs  by  which  it  is  effected  are  situated  on  each  side  of  the  base 
of  the  abdomen;  they  are  internal,  and  each  one  is  covered  by  a  cartilaginous 
plate,  which  closes  like  a  shutter.  The  cavity  wliich  encloses  this  appa- 
ratus is  divided  into  two  cells  by  a  squamous  and  triangular  septum.  When 
viewed  from  the  side  of  the  abdomen,  each  cell  presents  anteriorly  a  white 
and  plaited  membrane,  and  lower  down,  in  the  bottom,  a  tight,  thin,  trans- 
parent membrane,  which  Reaumur  terms  "  le  mirior."  If  tliis  part  of  the 
body  be  opened  above,  another  plaited  membrane  is  seen  on  each  side, 
which  is  moved  by  an  extremely  powerful  muscle  composed  of  numerous, 
straight,  and  parallel  fibres,  and  arising  from  the  squamous  septum.  This 
membrane  is  the  tymbal.  The  muscles,  by  rapidly  contracting  and  relax- 
ing, act  on  the  tymbals,  alternately  tightening  and  restoring  them  to  their 
original  state.  Such  is  the  orl^-in  of  these  sounds,  which  can  even  be  pro- 
duced after  the  death  of  the  Insect,  by  jerking  the  muscle. 

The  Cicadae  live  on  trees  or  shrubs,  of  which  they  suck  the  juices.  The 
female,  by  means  of  an  ovipositor  enclosed  in  a  bilaminated,  semitubular 
sheath,  and  composed  of  tliree  naiTow,  elongated,  squamous  pieces,  two  of 
which  terminate  in  the  form  of  a  file,  pierces  the  dead  twigs  to  the  medulla, 
in  which  she  deposits  her  eggs.  As  the  number  of  the  latter  is  considera- 
ble, she  makes  several  holes,  indicated  externally  by  as  many  elevations. 
The  young  larvx  however  leave  their  asylum  to  penetrate  into  the  earth, 
where  they  grow  and  experience  their  metamorphosis.  Their  anterior 
legs  are  short,  have  very  stout  thighs  armed  with  teeth,  and  are  adapted  for 
digging.  The  Greeks  ate  the  pupse,  which  they  called  Teitigometra,  and 
even  the  perfect  Insect. 

The  C.  orni,  by  wounding  the  ti-ee  from  which  its  specific  name  is  de- 
rived, produces  that  peculiar  honey-like  and  purgative  juice  called  manna. 

C.  orni,  L.  About  an  inch  long;  yellowish;  pale  beneath,  the  same 
colour  mixed  with  black  above;  margin  of  the  abdominal  segments,  russet; 
two  rows  of  blacldsh  points  on  the  elytra,  those  nearest  their  inner  margin 
the  smallest.     South  of  France,  Italy,  &c. 

The  other  Cicadariae — Mutes — have  but  three  distinct  joints  in 
the  antennas,  and  two  small  ocelli.  Their  legs  are  usually  adapted 
for  leaping.     Neither  of  the  sexes  is  provided  with  organs  of  sound. 

The  elytra  are  frequently  coriaceous  and  opaque.  Several  fe- 
males envelope  their  eggs  with  a  white  substance  resembling  cotton. 

Some  of  them — Fulgorellx — have  the  antennae  inserted  immediately  un- 
der their  eyes,  and  the  front  frequently  prolonged  In  the  form  of  a  snout, 
the  figui'e  of  which  varies  according  to  the  species.  By  this  we  distinguish 
the  genus 


432  INSECTA. 

FuLGORA,  Lin.  Oliv. 

Now  variously  subdivided. 

In  the  last  of  the  Cicadarise,  the  antennse  are  inserted  between  the  eyes; 
they  compose  the  genus 

CiCADELLA. 

Which  is  divided  into  Membrads,  Tragopa,  Darnis,  8cc.  &c. 

FAMILY  II. 

APHIDII. 

The  second  family  of  the  homopterous  Hemiptera,  or  the  fourth 
of  the  order,  is  distinguished  from  the  preceding  one  by  the  tarsi, 
which  are  composed  of  but  two  joints,  and  by  the  fiHform  or  setace- 
ous antennae,  which  are  longer  than  the  head,  and  have  from  six  to 
eleven  joints. 

Those  individuals  which  are  winged  always  have  two  elytra  and 
two  wings. 

These  Insects  are  very  small;  their  body  is  usually  soft,  and  their 
elytra  are  nearly  similar  to  the  wings,  or  only  differ  from  them  in 
being  larger  and  somewhat  thicker.  They  are  astonishingly  pro- 
lific. 

Here  the  antennae  are  composed  of  from  ten  to  eleven  joints,  the  last  of 
which  is  terminated  by  two  setse. 

They  possess  the  faculty  of  leaping-,  and  form  the  genus 

PsYLLA,  Geoff. — Chermes,  Lin. 
These  Hemiptera,  also  called  pseudo-aphides,  or  faux-pucerons,  live  on  the 
trees  and  plants  from  which  they  derive  their  nourishment;  both  sexes  are 
furnished  with  wings.  Their  larvae  usually  have  a  very  flat  body,  broad 
head,  and  the  abdomen  rounded  posteriorly.  Their  legs  are  terminated  by 
a  little  membranous  vesicle  accompanied  beneath  with  two  hooks.  Four 
wide  and  flat  pieces,  wliich  are  the  sheaths  of  the  elytra  and  wings, 
distinguish  the  nymph.  Several  in  this  state,  as  well  as  in  the  first,  are 
covered  with  a  white  substance  resembling  cotton,  arranged  in  flakes. 

The  remaining  Aphidii  have  but  six  or  eight  joints  in  the  antennae; 
the  last  is  not  terminated  by  two  setae. 

Sometimes  the  elytra  and  wings  are  linear,  fringed  with  hairs,  and 
extended  horizontally  on  the  body,  which  is  almost  cyHndrical;  the 


HEMIPTERA.  433 

rostrum  is  very  small  or  but  little  distinct.  The  tarsi  are  terminated 
by  a  vesicular  joint  without  hooks.  The  antennae  consist  of  eight 
graniform  joints.     Such  are  the  Insects  which  form  the  genus 

Thrips,  Lin. 
They  are  extremely  agile,  and  seem  to  leap  rather  than  fly.  When  we  irri- 
tate them  beyond  a  certain  point,  they  turn  up  the  posterior  extremity  of 
their  body  in  the  manner  of  the  StaphyUni.  They  live  on  flowers,  plants, 
and  under  the  bark  of  trees.  The  largest  species  scarcely  exceed  one  line 
in  length. 

Sometimes  the  elytra  and  wings,  oval  or  triangular,  and  without 
a  fringe  of  hairs  along  the  margin,  are  inclined  or  tectiform.  The 
rostrum  is  very  distinct.  The  tarsi  are  terminated  by  two  hooks, 
and  the  antennae  have  but  six  or  seven  joints.     Such  is  the  genus 

Aphis,  Lin. 
In  Aphis  properly  so  called,  the  antennse  are  longer  than  the  thorax,  and  con-, 
sist  of  seven  joints,  the  third  of  which  is  elongated  ^  the  eyes  are  entire, 
and  there  are  two  horns  or  mammillse  at  the  posterior  extremity  of  the  ab- 
domen. 

Almost  all  Aphides  live  in  society  on  trees  and  plants,  of  which  they 
suck  the  juices  with  their  trimk.  The  two  horns  observed  at  the  posterior 
extremity  of  the  abdomen  in  a  great  number  of  species  are  hollow  tubes 
from  which  little  globules  of  a  transparent,  honey-Uke  fluid  frequently  ex- 
ude, on  which  the  Ant  eagerly  feeds. 

The  wounds  inflicted  on  the  leaves  or  tender  twigs  of  plants,  by  Aptudes,. 
cause  those  parts  of  the  vegetable  to  assume  a  variety  of  forms,  as  may  be 
observed  on  the  shoots  of  the  Lime  tree,  the  leaves  of  Gooseberry  bushes, 
Apple  trees,  and  particularly  those  of  the  Elm,  Poplar  and  Pistachio,  in  which 
they  produce  vesicles  or  excrescences  enclosing  colonies  of  Aphides,  and 
frequently  an  abundant  saccharine  fluid.  Most  of  these  Insects  are  covered 
with  a  farinaceous  substance,  or  cotton-like  filaments,  sometimes  arranged 
in  bundles.  The  larvae  of  the  Hemerobii,  those  of  several  Diptera,  and  of 
Coccinellse,  destroy  immense  numbers  of  Aphides, 

A.  quercus,  L.  Brown?  remarkable  for  its  rostrum,  which  is  at  least 
thrice  as  long  as  the  body. 

-A-  fagif  L.     Completely  covered  with  white  down  resembling  cotton. 


3  E. 


434  IN9ECTA. 

FAMILY  III. 
GALLINSECTA. 

In  this  last  family  there  are  but  five  joints  in  the  tarsi,  with  a 
single  hook  at  the  extremity.  The  male  is  destitute  of  a  rostrum, 
and  has  but  two  wings,  which  are  laid  horizontally  on  the  body, 
one  over  the  other;  the  abdomen  is  terminated  by  two  setae.  The 
female  is  apterous  and  provided  with  a  rostrum.  The  antennae  are 
filiform  or  setaceous,  and  most  commonly  composed  of  eleven 
joints. 

They  constitute  the  genus 

Coccus,  Lin. 
The  bark  of  various  trees  is  frequently  covered  with  a  multitude  of  little 
oval  or  rounded  bodies,  in  the  form  of  fixed  shields  or  scales,  in  which,  at 
the  first  glance,  no  external  organs  indicative  of  an  Insect  are  perceptible. 
These  bodies  are  nevertheless  animals  of  this  class  and  belong  to  the 
genus  Coccus.  Some  are  females,  and  the  remainder  young  males,  the 
form  of  both  being  nearly  similar.  An  epoch,  however,  soon  arrives  in 
which  all  these  individuals  experience  singular  changes.  They  then  be- 
come fixed;  the  male  larvae  for  a  determinate  period,  requisite  for  their 
ultimate  metamorphosis,  and  the  females  for  ever.  If  we  observe  the  latter 
in  the  spring,  we  shall  find  that  their  body  gradually  increases  to  a  great 
volume,  and  finally  resembles  a  gall-nut,  being  sometimes  spherical,  and  at 
others  reniform  or  scaphoid.  The  skin  of  some  is  smooth  and  level,  that 
of  the  remainder  presents  incisures  or  vestiges  of  segments.  They  slip 
their  eggs  between  the  skin  of  their  abdomen,  and  a  white  down  which 
covers  the  spot  they  occupy.  Their  body  then  becomes  desiccated  and 
forms  a  solid  crust  or  shell  which  covers  their  ova.  Other  females  protect 
theirs  by  enveloping  them  with  a  white  substance  resembling  cotton. 
Those  which  are  spherical  form  a  sort  of  box  for  them  with  their  body. 
The  young  Cocci  have  an  oval  body,  much  flattened  and  furnished  with 
the  same  organs  as  that  of  the  mother.  They  spread  themselves  over  the 
leaves,  and  towards  the  end  of  autumn  approach  the  branches*  on  which 
they  place  themselves  to  pass  the  winter. 

The  Gallinsects  appear  to  injure  trees  by  a  superabundant  sudoresis 
through  the  punctures  they  make  in  them,  and  of  course  those  who  culti- 
vate the  Peach,  Orange,  Fig  and  Olive  are  particularly  on  their  guard  against 
them.  Certain  species  fix  themselves  to  the  roots  of  plants.  Some  are 
valuable  for  the  rich  red  colour  they  furnish  to  the  art  of  dyeing.  Further 
researches  on  these  Insects  might  eventuate  in  the  discovery  of  others  which 
would  prove  of  similar  utility. 


HEMIPTERA.  435 

C  cacti,  L.  (The  Cochineal  Insect.)  Female  of  a  deep  brown,  covered 
with  white  dust,  flat  beneath,  convex  above,  and  bordered;  the  annuh  are 
tolerably  distinct  at  first.     The  male  is  of  a  deep  red,  with  white  wing«. 

This  Insect  is  cultivated  at  Mexico,  on  a  species  of  Opuntia,  and  is  cele- 
brated for  the  crimson  dye  it  furnishes,  which,  by  being'  combined  with 
the  solution  of  tin  in  nitro-muriatic  acid,  produces  a  scarlet.  It  is  also  from 
this  Insect  that  we  obtain  carmine.  It  is  one  of  the  richest  productions  of 
Mexico. 


ORDER  VIII. 
NEUROPTERA(l). 

The  Neuroptera  are  distinguished  from  the  three  preceding  or- 
ders by  their  two  upper  wings,  which  are  membranous,  generally 
naked,  diaphanous,  and  similar  to  the  under  ones,  in  texture  and 
properties.  They  are  distinguished  from  the  eleventh  and  twelfth 
by  the  number  of  these  organs,  as  well  as  by  their  mouth,  fitted  for 
mastication  or  furnished  with  mandibles  and  true  maxillas,  or  in  other 
words  organized  as  usual,  a  character  which  also  removes  this  order 
from  the  tenth  or  that  of  the  Lepidoptera,  where,  besides,  the  four 
wings  are  farinaceous.  The  surface  of  these  wings  in  the  Neurop- 
tera is  finely  reticulated,  and  the  under  ones  are  most  commonly  as 
large  as  those  above  them,  but  sometimes  wider,  and  sometimes  nar- 
rower and  longer.  Their  maxillae  and  the  inferior  portion  of  their 
labrum  or  the  mentum  are  never  tubular.  The  abdomen  is  destitute 
of  a  sting  and  rarely  furnished  with  an  ovipositor. 

Their  antennas  are  usually  setaceous,  and  composed  of  numerous 
joints.  They  have  two  or  three  ocelli.  The  trunk  is  formed  of 
three  segments,  intimately  united  in  a  single  body,  distinct  from  the 
abdomen,  and  bearing  the  six  legs;  the  first  of  these  segments  is 
usually  very  short,  and  in  the  form  of  a  collar.  The  number  of 
joints  in  the  tarsi  varies.  The  body  is  usually  elongated,  and  with 
rather  soft  or  but  slightly  squamous  teguments;  the  abdomen  is  al- 
ways sessile.  Many  of  these  Insects  are  carnivorous  in  their  first 
state  and  in  their  last. 


(1)  Nerve-winged. 


436  INSECTA. 

Some  merely  experience  a  semimetamorphosis,  the  rest  a  com- 
plete one;  but  the  larvae  always  have  six  hooked  feet,  which  they 
usually  employ  in  seeking  their  food. 

I  will  divide  this  order  into  three  families,  which  will  successively 
present  to  us  the  following  natural  affinities: 

1.  Carnivorous  Insects,  subject  to  a  semimetamorphosis,  with 
aquatic  larvae. 

2.  Carnivorous  Insects,  subject  to  a  complete  metamorphosis, 
with  aquatic  or  terrestrial  larvae. 

3.  Carnivorous  or  omnivorous  terrestrial  Insects,  subject  to  a 
semimetamorphosis. 

4.  Herbivorous  Insects,  subject  to  a  complete  metamorphosis, 
with  aquatic  larvae,  which  construct  portable  dwellings. 

We  will  end  with  those  species  in  which  the  wings  are  the  least 
Teticulated,  and  which  resemble  Phalasna  or  Tineites. 

FAMILY  I, 

SUBULICORNES,  Lat(l). 

The  antennas  are  subulate,  and  hardly  longer  than  the  head;  they 
are  composed  of  seven  joints  at  most,  the  last  of  which  is  setaceous. 
The  mandibles  and  the  maxillae  are  completely  covered  by  the  lab- 
rum  and  labium,  or  by  the  anterior  and  projecting  extremity  of  the 
head. 

The  wings  are  always  reticulated  and  distant,  sometimes  laid  ho- 
rizontally and  sometimes  placed  perpendicularly;  the  inferior  are  as 
large  as  the  superior,  or  sometimes  very  small  and  even  wanting. 
The  ordinary  eyes  are  very  large  and  prominent  in  all  of  them;  and 
they  all  have  two  or  three  ocelli  situated  between  the  former.  The 
two  first  periods  of  their  life  are  passed  in  the  bosom  of  the  waters, 
where  they  prey  on  living  animals. 

The  larvae  and  pupae  which  approximate  in  form  to  the  perfect 
Insect,  respire  by  means  of  peculiar  organs  situated  on  the  sides  or 
extremity  of  the  abdomen.  They  issue  from  the  water  to  undergo 
their  ultimate  metamorphosis. 


(1)  Awl-shaped  horns. 


NEUROPTEUA.  437 

In  some  the  mandibles  and  maxillx  are  corneous,  very  strong,  and  cover- 
ed by  the  two  lips;  the  tarsi  are  triarticulated;  the  wings  are  equal,  and  the 
posterior  extremity  of  the  abdomen  is  simply  terminated  by  hooks  or  lami- 
niform  or  foliaceous  appendages.    They  form  the  genus 

LiBELLuiiA,  Lin.  Geoff. 
Or  Dragon  Mies.  The  light  and  graceful  figure  of  these  Insects,  the  beau- 
tiful and  variegated  colours  with  which  they  are  adorned,  their  large  wings 
resembling  lustrous  gauze,  and  the  velocity  with  which  they  pursue  the 
Flies,  &c.,  that  constitute  their  food,  attract  our  attention  and  enable  us  to 
recognize  them  with  facility.  Their  head  is  large,  rounded,  or  in  the  form 
of  a  broad  triangle.  They  have  two  great  lateral  eyes  and  three  ocelli  situ- 
ated on  the  vertex;  two  antennx,  &c.  The  female  deposits  her  eggs  in  the 
water. 

The  larvae  and  the  chrysalides  inhabit  the  water  until  the  period  of  their 
ultimate  metamorphosis,  and,  with  the  exception  of  wings,  are  tolerably 
similar  to  the  perfect  Insect.  Their  head,  however,  on  which  the  simple 
eyes  are  not  perceptible,  is  remarkable  for  the  singular  form  of  the  piece 
which  replaces  the  lower  lip.  It  is  a  kind  of  mask  that  covers  the  mandi- 
bles, maxillae,  and  almost  the  whole  under  part  of  the  head. 

Havingattained  the  period  of  their  ultimate  metamorphosis,  the  nymphs 
issue  from  the  water,  climb  along  the  stems  of  plants,  fix  there,  and  divest 
themselves  of  their  skin. 

LIBEI.LT7LA,  Fab. 

Or  Libellula  proper,  where  the  wings  are  extended  horizontally  when 
at  rest.  The  head  is  almost  globular,  with  very  large,  contiguous  or  closely 
approximated  eyes,  and  a  vesicular  elevation  on  the  vertex,  with  an  ocellus 
on  each  side;  the  other  or  anterior  ocellus  is  much  larger. 

^sHNA,  Fab. 

The  .Eshnae  resemble  the  Libellulae  proper  in  their  mode  of  bearing  their 
wings,  and  in  the  form  of  their  head,  but  their  two  posterior  ocelli  are 
placed  on  a  simple  ti-ansverse  elevation  in  the  form  of  a  carina.  The  in- 
termediate lobe  of  the  labium  is  also  larger,  and  the  two  others  are  distant 
and  armed  with  a  very  stout  tooth  and  spiniform  appendage.  The  abdo- 
men is  always  narrow  and  elongated. 

The  abdomen  is  terminated  by  five  appendages,  but  one  of  them  is  trun- 
cated at  the  end. 

M.  grandis.  One  of  the  largest  species  of  this  family,  being  nearly  two 
inches  and  a  half  (French)  in  length;  fulvous-brown;  two  yellow  lines  on 
each  side  of  the  thorax;  abdomen  spotted  with  green  or  yellowish;  wings 
iridescent.  It  darts  with  amazing  rapidity  over  meadows,  and  along  the 
shores  of  rivers,  &c.,  pursuing  Flies  in  the  manner  of  the  Swallow. 


438  INSECTA. 

Agbioit,  Fab. 

Where  the  wings  are  elevated  perpendicularly  when  at  rest,  the  head  is 
transversal,  and  the  eyes  are  distant. 

The  other  Subulicornes  have  an  entirely  membranous  or  very  soft  mouth, 
composed  of  parts  that  are  rather  indistinct.  Their  tarsi  consist  of  five 
joints;  their  inferior  wings  are  much  smaller  than  the  superior,  or  even 
wanting,  and  their  abdomen  is  terminated  by  two  or  three  setae. 

They  form  the  genus 

Ephemera,  Lin. 

So  called  from  their  short  term  of  life,  in  their  perfect  state.  Their  body 
is  extremely  soft,  long,  tapering,  and  terminated  posteriorly  by  two  or  three 
long  and  articulated  setae.  The  antennse  are  very  small  and  composed  of 
three  joints,  the  last  of  which  is  very  long,  and  in  the  form  of  a  conical 
thread.  The  wings  of  those  Insects  are  always  placed  perpendicularly,  or 
slightly  inchned  posteriorly,  like  those  of  an  Agrion. 

The  Ephemera  usually  appear  at  sun-set,  in  fine  weather,  in  summer  and 
autumn,  along  the  banks  of  rivers,  lakes,  &c.,  and  sometimes  in  such  in- 
numerable hosts  that  after  their  death  the  surface  of  the  ground  is  thickly 
covered  with  their  bodies;  in  certain  districts  cart-loads  of  them  are  collected 
for  manure.  The  descent  of  a  particular  species — the  albipennis — re- 
markable for  the  shortness  of  its  wings,  recals  to  our  minds  a  heavy  fall  of 
snow. 

These  Insects  (our  May-Flies)  collect  in  flocks  in  the  air,  flitting  about 
and  balancing  themselves  in  the  manner  of  the  Tipulse,  with  the  terminal 
filaments  of  their  tail  divergent. 

The  continuation  of  their  species  is  the  only  function  these  animals  have 
to  fulfil,  for  they  take  no  nourishment,  and  frequently  die  on  the  day  of 
their  metamorphosis,  or  even  within  a  few  houi's  after  that  event.  Those 
which  fall  into  the  water  become  food  for  Fishes,  and  are  styled  manna  by 
fishermen. 

If  however  we  trace  them  back  to  that  period  in  which  they  existed  as 
larvae,  we  find  their  career  to  be  much  longer,  extending  from  two  to  thi-ee 
years.  In  this  state,  as  well  as  that  of  seminymphs,  they  live  in  water,  fre- 
quently concealed,  at  least  during  the  day,  in  the  mud  or  under  stones, 
sometimes  in  horizontal  holes  divided  interiorly  into  two  united  canals,  each 
with  its  proper  opening.  These  habitations  are  always  excavated  in  clay, 
bathed  by  water,  which  occupies  its  cavities;  it  is  even  supposed  that  the 
larvae  feed  on  this  earth. 

The  seminymph  only  differs  from  the  larva  in  the  presence  of  the  cases 
which  enclose  the  wings.  Wlien  the  moment  of  their  development  has  ar- 
rived, it  leaves  the  water,  and  having  changed  its  skin,  appears  under  a  new 
form — but,  by  a  very  singular  exception,  it  has  still  to  experience  a  second 
change  of  tegument. 

The  ultimate  exuvium  of  these  Insects  is  frequently  found  on  trees  and 


NEUROPTERA.  439 

walls;  they  sometimes  even  leave  them  on  the  clothes  of  persons  who  may- 
be walking  in  their  vicinity. 


FAMILY  11. 

PLANIPENNES.(l) 

This  family  comprises  those  Neuroptera  in  which  the  antenna, 
always  multiarticulated,  are  much  longer  than  the  head,  without 
being  subulate  or  styliform.  Their  mandibles  are  very  distinct; 
their  inferior  wings  almost  equal  to  the  superior  ones,  and  extended 
or  simply  folded  underneath  at  their  anterior  margin. 

Their  wings  are  almost  always  much  reticulated  and  naked;  their 
maxillary  palpi  are  usually  filiform  or  somewhat  thicker  at  the  ex- 
tremity, shorter  than  the  head,  and  composed  of  from  four  to  five 
joints. 

I  will  divide  this  family  into  five  sections,  which,  by  reason  of 
the  habits  of  the  Insects  that  compose  them,  form  as  many  small 
sub-families. 

1.  The  Panorpat^  of  Latreille,  which  have  five  joints  to  all  the 
tarsi,  and  the  anterior  extremity  of  their  head  prolonged  and  nar- 
rowed in  the  form  of  a  rostrum  or  proboscis. 

They  constitute  the  genus 

Panorpa,  Lin.  Fab. 
Where  the  antenna  are  setaceous  and  inserted  between  the  eyes;  the  cly- 
peus  is  prolonged  into  a  conical,   corneous  lamina,  arched  above  to  cover 
the  mouth;  and  the  mandibles,  maxillx  and  labium  are  almost  linear.     They 
have  from  four  to  six  short,  filiform  palpi. 

Their  body  is  elongated,  the  head  vertical,  the  first  segment  of  the  trunk 
usually  very  small,  in  the  form  of  a  collar,  and  the  abdomen  conical  or  al- 
most cylindrical. 

There  is  much  difference  between  the  two  sexes  in  several  species. 
Their  metamorphoses  have  not  yet  been  observed. 

P.  communis,  L.  From  seven  to  eight  lines  in  length;  black;  rostrum 
and  extremity  of  the  abdomen  russet;  wings  spotted  with  black. — On 
hedges  and  in  woods. 

2.  The  Myrmeleonides,  which  also  have  five  joints  in  the  tarsi, 

(1)  Flat- winged. 


440  INSECTA. 

but  their  head  is  not  prolonged  anteriorly  in  the  form  of  a  rostrum 
or  snout;  their  antennae  gradually  enlarge  or  have  a  globuliform 
termination. 

Their  head  is  transverse,  vertical,  and  merely  presents  the  ordi- 
nary eyes,  which  are  i-ound  and  prominent;  there  are  six  palpi,  those 
of  the  labium  usually  longer  than  the  others,  and  inflated  at  the  ex- 
tremity. The  palate  of  the  mouth  is  elevated  in  the  form  of  an 
epiglottis;  the  first  segment  of  the  thorax  is  small;  the  wings  are 
equal,  elongated,  and  tectiform;  the  abdomen  is  most  frequently 
long  and  cylindrical,  with  two  salient  appendages  at  its  extremity 
in  the  males.     The  legs  are  short. 

They  are  found  in  the  warm  localities  of  the  southern  countries, 
clinging  to  plants,  where  they  remain  quiescent  during  the  day. 
Most  of  them  fly  well.     The  nymph  is  inactive. 

These  insects  form  the  genus 

Myrmeleon,  Lin. 
In  Mynneleon  proper,  the  antennse  enlarge  insensibly,  are  almost  fusiform, 
are  hooked  at  the  extremity,  and  much  shorter  than  the  boby;  the  abdomen 
is  long  and  linear. 

M.  formicarium,  L.  About  an  inch  long;  blackish  spotted  with  yellow- 
ish; wings  diaphanous,  with  black  nervures  picked  in  with  white;  some 
obscure  spots,  and  one  whitish,  near  the  extremity  of  the  anterior  margin. 

The  number  of  Ants  destroyed  by  the  larva  of  this  species,  which  is  the 
most  common  one  in  Europe,  has  obtained  for  it  the  name  of  Formica-leoy 
Idon-ant,  or  Fourmilion.  Its  abdomen  is  extremely  voluminous  in  compa- 
rison to  the  rest  of  the  body.  Its  head  is  very  small,  flattened,  and  armed 
with  two  long  mandibles  in  the  form  of  horns,  dentated  on  the  inner  side 
and  pointed  at  the  extremity,  which  act  at  once  as  pincei's  and  suckers. 
Its  body  is  greyish  or  of  the  colour  of  the  sand  in  which  it  lives.  Although 
provided  with  six  feet,  it  moves  very  slowly  and  almost  always  backwarks. 
Thus,  not  being  able  to  seize  its  prey  by  the  celerity  of  its  motions,  it  has 
recourse  to  stratagem;  and  lays  a  ti'ap  for  it  in  a  funnel-shaped  cavity  which 
it  excavates  in  the  finest  sand,  at  the  foot  of  a  tree,  old  walls,  or  acclivities 
exposed  to  the  south.  It  arrives  at  the  intended  scene  of  its  operations  by 
forming  a  ditch,  and  traces  the  area  of  the  funnel,  the  size  of  which  is  in 
proportion  to  its  growth.  Then,  always  moving  backwards,  and  describing 
as  it  goes,  spiral  convolutions,  the  diameter  of  which  progressively  dimin- 
ishes, it  loads  its  head  with  sand  by  means  of  one  of  its  anterior  feet,  and 
jerks  it  to  a  distance.  In  this  manner,  and  sometimes  in  the  space  of  half 
an  hour,  it  will  remove  a  reversed  cone  of  sand  the  base  of  which  is  equal 
in  diameter  to  that  of  the  area,  and  the  height  to  about  three-fourths  of  the 
same.     Hidden  and  quiescent  at  the  bottom  of  its  retreat,  with  nothing  visi- 


NEUROPTERA.  441 

ble  but  its  mandibles,  it  awaits  with  patience  till  an  Insect  is  precipitated 
into  it;  if  it  endeavour  to  escape,  or  be  at  too  great  a  distance  for  it  to  seize, 
it  showers  upon  it  sucli  a  torrent  of  sand  by  means  of  its  head  and  mandi- 
bles, as  propels  it  stunned  and  defenceless  to  the  bottom  of  the  hole> 
Having  exhausted  its  juices  by  suction,  it  jerks  away  the  carcass. 

When  about  to  pass  into  the  state  of  a  chrysalis,  it  encloses  itself  in  a 
perfectly  round  cocoon,  formed  of  a  silky  substance  of  the  colour  of  satin» 
which  it  covers  externally  with  grains  of  sand. 

There  is  a  genus  separated  from  it  by  Fabricius  called  Jiscalaphus. 

3.  The  Hemekobini  of  Latreille,  which  are  similar  to  the  Myr- 
meleonides  in  the  general  form  of  their  body  and  wings;  but  their 
antennae  are  filiform,  and  they  have  but  four  palpi. 

They  form  the  genus 

Hemerobitjs,  Lin.  Fab. 
The  body  of  the  true  Hemerobii  is  soft,  and  the  globular  eyes  are  frequently 
ornamented  with  metallic  colours;  the  wings  are  large,  and  their  exterior 
border  is  widened.  They  fly  slowly  and  heavily;  several  diffuse  a  strong 
odour,  with  which  the  finger  that  has  touched  them  remains  for  a  long 
time  impregnated. 

The  female  deposits  ten  or  twelve  eggs  on  leaves;  they  are  oval,  white, 
and  secured  by  a  very  long  and  capillary  pedicle.  Some  authors  have 
mistaken  them  for  a  species  of  mushroom.  The  larvx  bear  a  considerable 
resemblance  to  those  of  the  preceding  division;  they  are,  however,  more 
elongated  and  errant.  Reaumur  calls  them  Lions  des  Fucerons,  because 
they  feed  on  Aphides.  They  seize  them  with  their  horn-like  mandibles, 
and  soon  exhaust  them  by  suction.  Some  form  a  thick  case  for  themselves 
of  their  remains,  which  gives  them  a  very  singular  appearance.  The 
nymph  is  enclosed  in  a  silken  cocoon  of  an  extremely  close  tissue,  the 
volume  of  which  is  very  small  when  compared  with  that  of  the  Insect,  The 
fusi  of  the  larvae  are  situated  at  the  posterior  extremity  of  the  abdomen,  like 
those  of  the  larvae  of  the  Myrmeleonides. 

H.  perla,  L.  Green-yellow;  eyes  golden;  wings  transparent  with  entirely 
green  nervures. 

In  others  the  first  segment  of  the  thorax  is  large,  and  the  wings 
are  laid  horizontally  on  the  body;  the  palpi  are  filiform,  and  the  last 
joint  is  conical  or  almost  cylindrical,  and  frequently  shorter  than  the 
preceding  one.     The  larvae  are  aquatic.     They  form  the  genus 

Semblis,  Fab, 

Which  is  composed  of  three  subgenera,  viz.  Corydalis,  Chauliodes,  and 
Sialis. 

3  F 


442  INSECTA. 

4.  A  fourth  division,  that  of  the  TERMiTiNiG,  will  comprise  Neu- 
roptera  subject  to  a  semi-metamorphosis.  They  are  all  terrestrial, 
active,  carnivorous,  or  gnawers,  in  all  their  states.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  the  Mantispae,  very  distinct  from  all  the  Insects  of  this 
order,  by  the  form  of  their  anterior  legs,  which  resemble  those  of  a 
Mantis,  the  tarsi  consist  of  four  joints  at  most,  which  removes  them 
from  the  preceding  genera  of  the  same  family.  The  mandibles  are 
always  corneous  and  strong.  The  inferior  wings  are  nearly  as  large 
as  the  superior  ones,  and  without  folds,  or  smaller. 

Mantispa,  Illig. 
Where  there  are  five  joints  to  all  the  tarsi,  and  the  two  first  legs  are 
formed  like  those  of  a  Mantis  or  adapted  for  prehension.     The  antennx  of 
these  Insects  are  very  short  and  granose,  and  their  eyes  large.     The  pro- 
thorax  is  very  long,  and  thickened  anteriorly,  and  the  wings  are  tectiform. 

Rhaphidia,  Lin.  Fab. 
Where  the  tarsi  are  composed  of  four  joints  and  the  wings  are  tectiform. 
The  head  is  elongated  and  narrowed  posteriorly,  the  thorax  long,  narrow, 
and  almost  cylindrical.     The  abdomen  of  the  female  terminates  by  a  long 
external  oviduct,  formed  of  two  laminae. 

Teemes,  Hemerobius,  Lin. 

Where  all  the  tarsi  are  likewise  composed  of  four  joints;  but  the  wings  are 
very  long,  and  laid  horizontally  on  the  body;  the  head  is  rounded,  and  tlie 
thorax  almost  square  or  semicircular. 

The  body  of  these  Insects  is  depressed,  and  their  antennse  are  short  and 
formed  like  a  chaplet.  The  mouth  is  almost  similar  to  that  of  the  Orthoptera, 
and  the  labium  is  quadrifid.  They  have  tliree  ocelli,  one  of  which,  on  the 
forehead,  is  indistinct;  the  two  others  are  situated,  one  on  each  side,  near  the 
inner  margin  of  the  ordinary  eyes.  Their  wings  are  commonly  somewhat 
diaphanous,  coloured,  furnished  with  extremely  fine  and  crowded  nervures, 
and  not  very  distinctly  reticulated.  Their  abdomen  has  two  small,  conical, 
biarticulated  points  at  the  extremity;  the  legs  are  short. 

The  Termites,  peculiar  to  the  countries  situated  between  the  tropics,  or 
to  those  which  are  adjacent,  are  known  by  the  name  of  White  Ants,  Poux 
de  hois.  Carta,  &c.  The  appalhng  destruction  caused  by  these  Insects, 
particularly  in  the  state  of  larvae,  in  those  parts  of  the  world,  is  but  too 
well  known.  These  larvae,  the  working  Termites  or  labourers,  bear  a  close 
resemblance  to  the  perfect  Insect;  but  their  body  is  softer  and  apterous, 
and  their  head,  which  appears  proportionally  larger,  is  usually  destitute  of 
eyes,  or  has  but  very  small  ones.  They  live  in  society,  and  form  communi- 
ties, so  numerous  as  to  defy  all  calculation,  which  live  under  cover  in  the 
i^  round,  trees,  and  all  sort  of  ligneous  articles,  such  as  tables,  chairs,  furni- 


NEUROPTERA.  443 

ture  of  all  kinds,  and  the  planks,  timbers.  &c-  &c.  which  form  parts  of  houses. 
There  they  excavate  galleries,  vrhich  form  so  many  roads,  all  leading  to  the 
centre  of  their  domicil,  and  these  bodies  thus  mined,  and  retaining  nothing 
but  a  superficial  bark  or  covering,  coon  crumble  into  dust.  If  compelled 
by  any  insurmountable  obstacle  to  leave  their  dwellings,  they  construct 
tubes  or  ways  which  still  keep  them  from  sight-  The  nests  or  domicils  of 
several  species  are  exterior,  but  have  no  visible  opening.  Sometimes  they 
are  raised  above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  in  the  form  of  pyramids  or  tur- 
rets, occasionally  surmounted  with  a  capital  or  very  solid  roof,  which,  by 
their  height  and  number,  resemble  a  little  village.  Sometimes  they  form 
a  large  globular  mass  on  the  branches  of  trees.  Another  sort  of  individuals, 
the  neuters,  also  called  soldiers,  defend  the  domicil.  They  are  distinguished 
by  their  stouter  and  more  elongated  head,  the  mandibles  of  which  are 
also  longer,  narrower  and  considerably  crossed.  They  are  much  less  nu- 
merous than  the  others,  and  remain  near  the  surface  of  the  habitation,  are 
the  first  that  present  themselves  in  case  of  an  attack,  and  pinch  with  €»n- 
siderable  strength.  It  is  also  said  that  they  force  the  bibourera  to  voriL 
The  seminymphs  have  rudiments  of  wings,  and  in  other  respects  resemble 
the  larvx. 

HaN-ing  become  perfect  Insects,  the  Termites  leave  their  original  retreat, 
and  fly  off  at  evening  or  during  the  night  in  incalculable  numbers.  At 
sunrise,  they  lose  their  wings,  which  are  dried  up,  fall  to  the  ground,  and 
are  mostly  devoured  by  Birds,  Lizards,  and  the  rest  of  their  enemies. 

In  the  remaining  Termetlnx  the  tarsi  are  biarticulated,  and  the  labial 
palpi  indistinct  and  very  short.  The  antennx  consist  of  about  ten  joints, 
the  first  segment  of  the  trunk  is  very  small,  and  the  inferior  wing«  are 
smaller  than  the  others.     They  form  the  genus 

Psocrs,  Lat.  Fab. 
And  are  very  smsdl  Insects  with  a  short  and  extremely  soft  body  that  is 
frequently  inflated,  or  as  if  hump-backed.  Their  head  is  large,  their  an- 
tennx  setaceous,  and  tlie  maxill.iry  palpi  salient.  Their  wings  are  tecti- 
form  and  but  slightly  reticulated  or  simply  veined.  They  are  extrejnely 
active,  and  live  under  the  bark  of  trees,  in  wood,  &c.  The  following  spe- 
cies is  commonly  found  in  books  and  collections  of  Insects  and  plants. 

F .  puhaiorius.  Usu-ally  apterous;  yellowish  white:  eyes  and  some  small 
spots  on  tlie  abdomen,  russet.  It  was  thought  to  produce  that  faint  noise 
resembling  the  tick  of  a  wsitch  frequently  heard  in  our  houses,  and  of  which 
we  have  spoken  while  on  the  genus  Anobium — thence  the  origin  of  its  spe- 
cific name. 

5.  The  Perlides,  in  which  the  tarsi  arc  triarticulaled,  and  the 
mandibles  almost  always  partly  membranous  and  small.  The  infe- 
rior wings  are  wider  than  the  others,  and  doubled  at  their  inner 
margin. 


444  INSECTA. 

They  comprise  the  genus 

Perla,  Geoff. 

Their  body  is  elongated,  narrow  and  flattened;  the  head  is  tolerably  large, 
the  antenna  are  setaceous,  and  the  maxillary  palpi  very  salient.  The  first 
segment  of  their  trunk  is  nearly  square,  and  the  wings  are  crossed  and  laid 
horizontally  on  the  body;  the  abdomen  terminates  as  usual  by  two  articu- 
lated setje. 

Their  larvae  are  aquatic  and  inhabit  sheaths  or  cases,  which  they  construct 
in  the  manner  of  those  formed  by  the  Insects  of  the  ensuing  family,  and  in 
which  they  pass  into  the  state  of  nymphs. 

FAMILY  III. 

PLICIPENNES(l). 

In  this  family  the  mandibles  are  wanting,  and  the  inferior  wings 
are  usually  wider  than  the  others,  and  plaited  longitudinally.  It  is 
formed  of  the  genus 

Phryganea,  Lin.  Fab. 
These  Neuroptera  at  a  first  glance,  have  the  appearance  of  little  Phals- 
nae,  and  hence  the  name  of  Mouches  papillonacees  or  papilionaceous  flies, 
bestowed  upon  them  by  Reaumur.  The  body  is  most  frequently  bristled 
with  hairs,  and,  with  the  wings,  forms  an  elongated  triangle,  hke  several  of 
the  Noctuse  and  Pyrales.  The  first  segment  of  the  thorax  is  small.  The 
wings  are  simply  veined,  usually  coloured,  or  almost  opaque,  sUky  or  pilose 
in  several,  and  always  strongly  teetiform.  The  legs  are  elongated,  are 
furnished  with  small  spines  and  have  five  joints  in  all  the  tarsi. 

These  Insects  chiefly  fly  at  night  or  during  the  evening,  diffuse  a  disa- 
greeable odour,  frequently  penetrate  into  houses,  where  they  are  attracted 
by  the  light,  and  are  extremely  quick  and  agile  in  all  their  motions.  The 
smaller  species  flit  about  in  flocks  over  ponds  and  rivers. 

Their  larvje,  always,  like  the  Tinese,  inhabit  tubes  that  are  usually  cylin- 
drical, covered  with  various  substances  which  they  find  in  the  water,  such 
as  blades  of  grass,  bits  of  reeds,  leaves,  roots,  seeds,  grains  of  sand,  and 
even  little  shells,  and  frequently  arranged  symmetrically.  They  connect 
these  various  bodies  with  silken  threads,  the  source  of  wliich  is  contained 
in  internal  reservoirs  similar  to  tliose  of  Caterpillars,  and  that  are  also  pro- 
duced by  fusi  situated  in  the  lip.  The  interior  of  the  habitation  forms  a 
tube  which  is  open  at  both  ends  for  the  intromission  of  water.     The  larva 


(1)  Folded-wings. 


NEUROPTERA.  445 

always  transports  its  domicil  along  with  it,  protrudes  the  anterior  extremity 
of  its  body  while  progressing,  never  quits  its  dwelling,  and  when  found  to 
do  so,  retiu-ns  to  it  voluntarily  when  left  within  its  reach. 

When  about  to  become  nymphs,  they  fix  their  tubes  to  different  bodies, 
but  always  in  water,  and  close  the  two  orifices  with  a  grating,  the  form 
of  which,  as  well  as  that  of  the  tube  itself,  varies  according  to  the  species. 
In  fixing  their  portable  dwelling,  they  so  manage  it  that  the  aperture, 
which  is  at  the  point  d'appui,  is  never  obstructed. 

The  nymph  is  furnished  anteriorly  with  two  hooks,  which  cross  each 
otiier  and  somewhat  resemble  a  rosti-um  or  snout.  Witli  it,  when  the  pe- 
riod of  its  last  metamorphosis  has  amved,  it  perforates  one  of  the  grated 
septa  in  order  to  procure  egress. 

Hitherto  immovable,  it  now  walks  or  swims  with  agility,  by  means  of  its 
four  anterior  feet,  which  are  free,  and  furnished  with  thick  fringes  of  haii-s. 
The  nymphs  of  the  large  species  leave  the  water  altogether,  and  climb  on 
various  bodies,  where  their  final  change  is  effected.  The  small  ones 
simply  rise  to  the  surface,  where  they  are  transformed  to  winged  Insects,  in 
the  manner  of  the  Culices  and  various  Tipularix;  their  exuvium  serves  them 
for  a  boat. 

There  are  several  subgenera. 


ORDER  IX. 

HYMENOPTERA(l). 

In  this  family  we  still  find  four  membranous  and  naked  wings,  and 
a  mouth  composed  of  mandibles,  maxillae  and  two  lips;  but  these 
wings,  of  which  the  superior  are  always  largest,  have  fewer  ner- 
vures  than  those  of  the  Neuroptera,  and  are  not  veined;  the  abdo- 
men of  the  females  is  terminated  by  an  ovipositor  or  sting. 

Besides  their  compound  eyes  they  are  all  provided  with  three 
ocelli.  Their  antennae  vary,  not  only  according  to  the  genus,  but 
even  in  the  sexes  of  the  same  species;  generally,  however,  they  are 
filiform  or  setaceous.  The  maxillae  and  labium  are  usually  narrow, 
elongated,  and  fixed  in  a  deep  cavity  of  the  head  by  long  muscles, 
form  a  semitube  inferiorly,  are  frequently  folded  up  at  their  extre- 
mity, and  better  adapted  for  the  transmission  of  nutritious  fluids  than 
for  mastication;  in  several  they  form  a  proboscis.     The  ligula  is 


(1)  Membrane-winged. 


446  INSECTA. 

membranous,  either  widened  at  its  extremity,  or  long  and  filiform, 
having  the  pharynx  at  its  anterior  base,  and  being  frequently  covered 
by  a  sort  of  sub-labrum  or  epipharynx.  They  have  four  palpi,  two 
maxillary  and  two  labial.  The  thorax  consists  of  three  united  seg- 
ments, of  which  the  anterior  is  very  short  and  the  two  last  are  con- 
founded in  one.  The  wings  are  laid  horizontally  on  the  body.  The 
abdomen  is  most  commonly  suspended  by  a  little  thread  or  pedicle 
to  the  posterior  extremity  of  the  thorax.  The  tarsi  consist  of  five 
entire  joints,  none  of  them  being  divided.  The  ovipositor  and  sting 
are  generally  composed  of  three  long  and  slender  pieces,  two  of 
which  serve  as  a  sheath  to  the  third  in  those  which  are  provided 
with  an  ovipositor,  and  one  alone,  the  superior,  has  a  groove  under- 
neath for  lodging  the  two  others.  In  those  where  this  ovipositor  is 
transformed  into  a  sting,  this  offensive  weapon  and  the  oviduct  are 
serrated  at  the  extremity. 

The  Hymenoptera  undergo  a  complete  metamorphosis.  Most 
of  their  larvae  resemble  worms  and  are  destitute  of  feet;  such,  for 
instance,  are  those  of  our  second  and  following  families.  Those  of 
the  first  have  six  hooked  feet,  and  frequently  from  twelve  to  sixteen 
others  that  are  simply  membranous.  These  latter  have  been  named 
pseudo-caterpillars.  Both  kinds  have  a  squamous  head  provided 
with  mandibles,  maxillae,  and  a  lip;  at  the  extremity  of  the  latter  is 
a  fusus  for  the  transmission  of  the  silky  material  that  is  to  be  em- 
ployed in  constructing  the  cocoon  of  the  nymph. 

Some  feed  on  vegetable  substances,  while  others,  always  destitute 
of  feet,  devour  the  carcases  of  Insects,  together  with  their  larvae, 
nymphs,  and  even  eggs. 

To  remedy  their  want  of  locomotive  powers,  the  mother  furnishes 
them  with  provisions,  sometimes  by  transporting  aliment  into  the 
nests  she  has  prepared  for  them,  which  are  frequently  constructed 
with  so  much  art  as  to  excite  our  wonder  and  surprise,  and  some- 
times by  depositing  her  eggs  in  the  body  of  the  larvae  and  nymphs 
of  Insects,  on  which  her  progeny  are  to  feed. 

Other  larvae  of  Hymenoptera,  also  destitute  of  feet,  require  more 
elaborated  and  frequently  renewed  supplies  of  aliment,  both  vegeta- 
ble and  animal.  These  are  reared  in  common  by  neuters  forming 
communities,  of  which  they  have  the  sole  care;  their  labours  and 
mode  of  life  will  always  continue  to  excite  our  admiration  and  as- 
tonishment. 


HTMENOPTERA.  447 

Almost  all  Hymenopterous  Insects,  in  their  perfect  state,  live  on 
flowers,  and  are  usually  most  abundant  in  southern  climates.  Their 
period  of  life,  from  their  birth  to  their  ultimate  metamorphosis,  is 
limited  to  a  year. 

I  will  divide  this  order  into  two  sections. 

The  first,  or  that  of  the  Terecrantia,  is  characterized  by  the 
presence  of  an  ovipositor  in  the  females. 

I  divide  this  section  into  two  great  families. 


FAMILY  I. 

SECURIFERA(l). 

Our  first  family  is  distinguished  from  the  following  ones  by  a  sess- 
ile abdomen,  or  the  base  of  which  is  joined  to  the  thorax  throughout 
its  whole  thickness,  that  seems  to  be  a  continuation  of  it,  and  to  have 
no  separate  motion. 

The  females  are  provided  with  an  ovipositor  that  is  most  com- 
monly serrated,  and  which  not  only  enables  them  to  deposit  their 
eggs,  but  likewise  to  prepare  a  place  for  their  reception.  The 
larvcs  always  have  six  squamous  feet,  and  frequently  others  that  are 
membranous. 

This  family  is  composed  of  two  tribes. 

In  the  first,  that  of  the  Tenthredinet^,  vulgarly  termed  Saw- 
Jlies,  we  observe  elongated  and  compressed  mandibles;  a  trifid  or 
sort  of  digitated  ligula;  an  ovipositor  formed  of  two  serrated,  point- 
ed blades,  united  and  lodged  in  a  groove  under  the  anus.  The 
maxillary  palpi  are  all  composed  of  six  joints,  and  the  labials  of 
four;  the  latter  are  always  the  shortest.  The  wings  are  always  di- 
vided into  numerous  cells.     This  tribe  forms  the  genus 

Tenthredo,  Lin. 

The  cylindrical  abdomen  of  these  Insects  which  is  rounded  posteriorly, 
composed  of  nine  annuli,  and  so  closely  joined  to  the  thorax  that  the  two 
seem  to  be  continuous;  the  ragg-ed  appearance  of  their  wings;  the  two  little 
rounded,  granular,  and  usually  coloured  bodies  situated  behind  the  scutel- 
lum,  together  with  their  heavy  port,  cause  them  to  be  easily  recognized. 
The  abdomen  of  the  female  presents  at  its  inferior  extremity  a  double. 


(1)  Hatchet  bearers. 


448  INSECTA. 

movable,  squamous  ovipositor  that  is  serrated,  pointed,  and  lodged  between 
two  concave  laminx,  forming-  its  sheath  or  case. 

It  is  by  tlie  alternate  action  of  the  teeth  of  this  ovipositor,  that  the  In- 
sect makes  a  number  of  little  holes  in  the  branches,  and  various  other  parts 
of  trees  and  plants,  in  each  of  which  it  first  deposits  an  egg,  and  then  a 
foaming  liquid,  the  use  of  which,  it  is  presumed,  is  to  prevent  the  aperture 
from  closing.  The  wounds  made  in  this  way  become  more  and  more  con- 
vex by  the  increasing  size  of  the  egg.  Sometimes  these  excrescences 
assume  the  form  of  a  gall-nut,  either  ligneous  or  soft  and  pulpy,  or  resemble 
a  little  fruit,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  parts  of  the  plant  that  are  affect- 
ed by  them.  These  tumours  then  form  the  domicil  of  the  larva:  which  in- 
habit them  either  solitarily  or  in  society.  There  they  undergo  their  meta- 
morphosis, and  issue  from  them  through  a  circular  opening  made  in  their 
parietes  by  the  teeth  of  the  Insect.  Generally  speaking,  however,  these 
larvae  live  exposed  on  the  leaves  of  the  trees  and  plants  on  which  they  feed. 

T.  scrophularise,  L.  Five  lines  in  length;  black;  antennae  fulvous  and 
somewhat  thickest  at  the  extremity;  annuli  of  the  abdomen,  the  second  and 
third  excepted,  margined  posteriorly  with  yellow;  tibix  and  tarsi  fulvous. 
It  resembles  a  Wasp. 

The  larva  has  twenty-two  feet;  white,  with  black  head  and  points.  It 
feeds  on  the  leaves  of  the  Scrophularise. 

There  are  various  subgenera  belonging  to  this  tribe,  such  as  Cimbex, 
Hyhtoma,  &c. 

The  second  tribe,  that  of  the  Ukocerata,  Lat.,  is  distinguished 
from  the  preceding  one  by  the  following  characters:  the  mandibles 
are  short  and  thick;  the  ligula  is  entire;  the  ovipositor  of  the  females 
is  sometimes  very  salient  and  composed  of  three  threads,  and  some- 
times capillary  and  spirally  convoluted  in  the  interior  of  the  ab- 
domen. 

This  tribe  is  composed  of  the  genus 

SiREX,  Lin. 
The  antennae  are  filiform  or  setaceous,  vibratile,  and  formed  by  from  ten 
to  twenty-five  joints.  The  head  is  rounded  and  almost  globular;  thelabrum 
very  small;  the  maxillary  palpi  are  filiform  with  from  two  to  five  joints,  and 
the  labials  with  three,  the  last  of  which  is  the  thickest.  The  body  is  almost 
cylindrical.  The  anterior  or  posterior  tarsi,  and  in  several  the  colour  of 
the  abdomen,  differ  according  to  the  sex.  The  female  deposits  her  eggs 
in  old  trees,  most  commonly  in  Pines.  Her  ovipositor  is  lodged  at  base 
between  two  valves,  forming  a  groove. 

In  Sirex  proper,  the  antennae  are  inserted  near  the  front  and  consist  of 
from  thirteen  to  twenty-five  joints.  The  extremity  of  the  last  segment  of 
the  abdomen  is  prolonged  into  a  sort  of  tail  or  horn,  and  the  ovipositor  is 
salient  and  formed  of  three  filaments. 


HVMENOPTERA.  449 

These  Insects,  which  are  tolerably  large,  more  particularly  inhabit  the 
Pine  forests  of  cold  and  mountainous  countries,  produce  in  flying  a  hum- 
ming like  that  of  a  Bombus,  &c.,  and  in  certain  seasons  have  appeared  in 
auch  numbers  as  to  strike  the  people  with  terror. 


FAMILY  II. 

PUPIVORA(l). 

In  the  second  family  of  the  Hymenoptera  we  find  the  abdomen 
attached  to  the  thorax  by  a  simple  portion  of  its  transversal  diame- 
ter, and  even  most  frequently  by  a  very  small  thread  or  pedicle,  in 
such  a  manner  that  its  insertion  is  very  distinct,  and  that  it  moves 
on  that  part  of  the  body.  The  females  are  provided  with  an  ovi- 
positor. 

The  larvae  are  destitute  of  feet  and  mostly  parasitical  and  carni- 
vorous. 

I  divide  this  family  into  six  tribes. 

In  the  first,  that  of  the  Evaniajles,  Lat.,  the  wings  are  Veined) 
and  the  superior  ones,  at  least,  are  lobatej  the  antennae  filiform  or 
setaceous,  and  composed  of  thirteen  or  fourteen  joints;  the  mandi- 
bles dentated  on  the  inner  side;  the  maxillary  palpi  composed  of  six 
joints,  and  the  labials  of  four.  The  abdomen  is  implanted  on  the 
thorax,  in  several  under  the  scutellum,  and  has  an  ovipositor  usually 
salient  and  formed  of  three  filaments. 

This  tribe  appears  to  form  but  the  single  genus 

FCENXJS. 

Sometimes  the  ovipositor  is  concealed,  or  but  very  slightly  salient,  and 
resembles  a  little  sting.  The  ligula  is  trifid,  a  character  which  approximates 
these  Insects  to  the  preceding  Hymenoptera. 

In  the  second  tribe,  that  of  the  Ichneumonides,  the  wings  are 
also  veined,  the  superior  ones  always  presenting  complete  or  closed 
cells  in  their  disk.  The  abdomen  originates  between  the  two  pos- 
terior legs.  The  antennae  are  generally  filiform  or  setaceous,  rarely 
clavate,  vibratile,  and  multiarticulated,  being  composed  of  sixteen 
joints  at  least.     In  most  of  them  the  mandibles  have  no  tooth  on  the 

(1)  PupK-eaters. 
3G 


450  INSECTA. 

inner  side,  and  terminate  in  a  bifid  point.     The  maxillary  palpi, 
always  apparent  or  salient,  consist  most  commonly  of  but  five  joints. 
The  ovipositor  is  formed  of  three  threads. 
This  tribe  embraces  almost  the  whole  genus 

Ichneumon,  Lin.(l) 
These  Insects  destroy  the  posterity  of  the  Lepidoptera,  so  noxious  to  the 
agriculturalist  under  the  form  of  caterpillars,  just  as  the  quadruped  so  call- 
ed is  said  to  destroy  that  of  the  CrocodUe  by  breaking  its  eggs,  and  even 
by  introducing  itself  into  the  body  of  the  animal  in  order  to  devour  its  en- 
trails. 

Some  authors  have  called  them  Mouches  iripiks,  on  account  of  the  three 
setjE  v/hich  compose  their  ovipositor,  and  Mouches  vihrantes,  because  their 
antennae  are  continually  vibrating.  These  organs  are  frequently  curled 
(contournees),  and  have  a  white  or  yellowish  annular  spot  in  the  middle. 
The  body  is  most  frequently  narrow  and  elongated  or  hnear,  with  the  ovi- 
positor sometimes  exterior  and  resembling  a  tail,  and  sometimes  very  short 
and  concealed  in  the  interior  of  the  abdomen,  which  then  terminates  in  a 
point,  whilst  in  those  where  the  ovipositor  is  salient,  it  is  thicker,  and  as  if 
clavate  and  truncated  posteriorly.  Of  the  three  pieces  which  compose  this 
instrument  the  Intermediate  is  the  only  one  that  penetrates  into  tlxe  bodies  in 
which  these  Insects  deposit  their  eggs;  its  extremity  is  flattened,  and  some- 
times resembles  the  nib  of  a  pen. 

The  females,  anxious  to  lay,  are  continually  flying  or  walking  about,  in 
order  to  discover  the  larvae,  nymphs,  and  eggs  of  Insects,  and  even  Spiders, 
Aphides,  &c. ,  destined  to  receive  their  ova,  and  when  hatched,  to  sustain 
their  offspring.  In  this  search  they  exhibit  a  wonderful  degree  of  instinct, 
which  reveals  to  them  the  most  secret  retreats  of  its  objects.  Those  which 
are  provided  with  a  long  ovipositor  deposit  the  germs  of  their  race  in  the 
fissures  or  holes  of  trees,  or  under  their  bark.  In  this  operation  the  ovi- 
positor proper  is  introduced  almost  perpendicularly,  and  is  completely  dis- 
engaged from  its  semi-scabbards,  which  remain  parallel  to  each  other,  and 
supported  in  the  air,  in  the  line  of  the  body.  Those  females  in  which  the 
ovipositor  is  very  short,  and  but  sHglitly  or  not  at  all  apparent,  deposit  their 
ova  in  the  body  of  larvae,  caterpillars,  and  nymphs,  which  are  exposed  or 
very  accessible. 

The  larvae  of  the  Ichneumonides,  like  all  the  others  of  the  succeeding 
families,  are  destitute  of  feet.  Those  which,  in  the  manner  of  intestinal 
worms,  inhabit  the  bodies  of  larvae  or  caterpillars,  where  they  sometimes 
form  communities,  only  attack  the  adipose  substance — corps  graisseux — or 
such  of  the  internal  parts  as  are  not  necessary  to  their  existence.  When 
about  to  become  nymphs,  however,  they  perforate  their  skin  in  order  to 


(1)  Tills  genus  comprises  upwards  of  twelve  hundred  specie*,  and  its  study 
is  extremely  difficult. 


HYMENOPTERA.  451 

open  a  passage,  or  put  them  to  death,  and  there  tranquilly  undergo  their 
ultimate  metamorphosis.  Such  also  are  the  hahits  of  those  which  feed  on 
nymphs  or  chrysalides.  Nearly  all  of  them  spin  a  silken  cocoon,  in  which 
they  become  nymphs.  These  cocoons  are  sometimes  agglomerated,  either 
naked,  or  enveloped  in  a  sort  of  tow  or  cotton,  in  an  oval  mass,  frequently 
found  attached  to  the  stems  of  plants.  The  symmetrical  arrangement  of 
the  cocoons  of  one  species  forms  an  alveolar  body,  resembling  the  honey- 
comb of  our  domestic  Bee.  The  silk  of  these  cocoons  is  sometimes  of  a 
uniform  yellow  or  white,  and  sometimes  mixed  with  black  or  filaments  of 
two  colours.  Those  of  some  species  are  suspended  to  a  leaf  or  twig,  by 
means  of  a  long  thread. 
There  are  various  subgenera  belonging  to  this  tribe. 

In  the  second  tribe,  the  Galucol^e,  we  find  but  a  single  nervure 
in  the  inferior  wings.  The  antennse  are  of  equal  thickness  through- 
out, or  gradually  enlarge,  but  without  forming  a  club,  and  consist 
of  from  thirteen  to  fifteen  joints.  The  palpi  are  very  long.  The 
ovipositor  is  convoluted  spirally  in  the  interior  of  the  abdomen,  and 
has  its  posterior  extremity  lodged  in  a  groove  of  the  venter. 

The  Gallicolae  form  the  genus 

Cynips,  Lin. 

These  Insects  seem  to  be  hump-backed,  having  a  small  head  and  &  thick 
and  elevated  thorax.  Their  abdomen  is  compressed,  carinated  or  trenchan 
inferiorly,  and  truncated  obliquely,  or  obtuse,  at  the  extremity.  That  of 
the  females  contains  an  ovipositor  which  seems  to  consist  of  a  single,  long, 
and  extremely  slender  or  capillary  thread  convoluted  spirally  near  the  base 
or  towards  the  origin  of  the  venter,  and  of  which  the  terminal  portion  is 
lodged  under  the  extremity  between  two  elongated  valvulac;  each  of  which 
forms  a  semi-scabbard  or  sheath  for  it.  The  extremity  of  this  ovipositor  is 
grooved,  and  has  lateral  teeth  resembling  the  barbs  on  the  head  of  an  arrow; 
with  these  the  Insect  widens  the  aperture  it  has  effected  in  different 
parts  of  plants  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  its  eggs.  The  juices  of  those 
plants  are  diffused  in  the  wounded  spots  and  form  excrescences  or  tumours 
called  g-a//5.  The  one  most  commonly  known,  or  the  gall-nut,  Aleppo  gall, 
is  employed  with  a  solution  of  the  sulphate  of  iron  to  produce  a  black  dye. 
The  form  and  solidity  of  these  protuberances  vary  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  parts  of  the  plants  that  have  been  wounded,  such  as  the 
leaves,  petioles,  buds,  bark,  roots,  &c.  Most  of  them  are  spherical;  some 
resemble  fruits.  Others  are  fibrous  or  hairy,  like  that  called  the  bedeguar, 
mousse  chevelue,  &c.,  which  is  observed  on  the  wild  Rose-trees.  Some  of 
them  resemble  artichokes,  others  mushrooms,  &c.  &c.  The  eggs  enclosed 
in  these  excrescences  increase  in  size  and  consistence,  and  finally  produce 
larvae  destitute  of  feet,  but  frequently  provided  with  mammills  in  place  of 


452  INSECTA. 

tbem.  Sometimes  they  live  there  solitarily,  and  sometimes  in  society, 
feeding  on  their  internal  parietes  without  interfering  with  their  develop- 
ment, and  remaining  five  or  six  months  in  this  condition.  There  also  some 
undergo  their  metamorphosis,  to  effect  which,  others  issue  forth  and  de- 
scend into  the  earth  where  they  remain  till  their  final  change  is  completed. 
The  round  holes  obsei"ved  on  the  exterior  of  the  gall  intimate  the  exit  of 
the  Insect.  Several  Insects  of  the  following  family  are  also  sometimes 
found  in  it,  but  this  has  been  by  destroying  the  natural  inhabitants,  of  whose 
domicil  they  have  taken  possession,  in  the  manner  of  the  Ichneumons. 

Certmn  species  are  apterous.  One  species  deposits  its  ova  in  the  pollen 
of  the  earliest  of  the  wild  Fig-trees.  The  modern  Greeks,  in  pursuance  of 
a  method  transmitted  to  them  from  antiquity,  pierce  several  of  these  figs, 
and  place  them  on  their  late  bearing  trees  of  the  same  genus;  the  Cynips 
soon  leave  their  old  dwelling  and  come  out  loaded  with  the  fecundating 
dust,  insinuate  themselves  into  the  eye  of  the  fruit  borne  by  the  latter,  fe- 
cundate its  seeds,  and  accelerate  the  period  of  its  maturity.  This  operation 
is  termed  caprification. 

C.  gallx  tindorias.  Very  pale  fulvous;  covered  with  a  silky  and  whitish 
down,  with  a  blackish-brown  and  glossy  spot  on  the  abdomen.  In  the 
round,  hard  and  tuberculous  gall  found  on  a  species  of  Oak  in  the  Levant, 
which  is  employed  in  commerce.  By  breaking  this  gall  we  may  frequently 
obtain  the  perfect  Insect. 

The  fourth  tribe,  that  of  the  Chalcidije,  Spin.,  only  differs  es- 
sentially from  the  preceding  one  in  the  antennae,  which  are 
geniculate,  those  of  the  Euchares  alone  excepted,  and  which,  from 
the  elbow,  form  an  elongated  or  fusiform  club,  of  which  the  first 
joint  is  frequently  lodged  in  a  groove.  The  palpi  are  very  short. 
The  number  of  joints  of  the  antennas  never  exceeds  twelve. 

We  may  refer  the  various  genera  established  in  this  tribe  to  the 
genus 

Chalcis,  Fab. 
These  Insects  are  very  small,  and  are  decorated  with  extremely  brilliant 
metallic  colours.  Most  of  them  enjoy  the  faculty  of  leaping.  The  ovi- 
positor, like  that  of  the  Ichneumons,  is  salient  and  frequently  composed  of 
three  threads;  the  larvae  are  also  parasitical.  Some  of  them,  on  account  of 
their  extreme  minuteness,  live  in  the  interior  of  the  almost  imperceptible 
ova  of  Insects.  Others  inhabit  galls  and  the  chrysalides  of  the  Lepidoptera. 
I  suspect  that  they  do  not  spin  a  cocoon. 
There  are  various  subgenera. 

In  the  fifth  tribe,  that  of  the  Oxiuri,  Lat.,  we  observe  species 
similar  to  (he  preceding  in  the  absence  of  nervurcs  in  the  inferior 


HYMENOPTEUA.  453 

wings,  and  in  which  the  abdomen  of  the  females  is  terminated  by  a 
tubular  and  conical  ovipositor,  sometimes  internal,  exertileand  pro- 
truding like  a  sting,  and  sometimes  external  and  forming  a  sort  of 
tail  or  terminal  point.  The  antennas  are  composed  of  from  ten  to 
fifteen  joints,  and  are  either  filiform  or  somewhat  lar<rest  near  the 
end,  or  clavate  in  the  females.  The  maxillary  palpi  of  several  are 
long  and  pendent. 

We  reduce  the  various  genera  of  which  it  is  composed  to  one,  the 

Bethylus,  Lat.  Fab. 

The  habits  of  these  Insects  are  probably  those  of  the  Chalcidlse;  but  as 
most  of  them  are  found  on  the  sand  or  low  pbnts,  1  suspect  that  their  larvae 
live  in  the  ground. 

In  the  sixth  tribe,  or  the  Chrysides,  Lat.,  the  inferior  wings,  as 
in  the  three  preceding  tribes,  are  not  veined;  but  their  ovipositor  is 
formed  by  the  last  rings  of  the  abdomen  in  the  manner  of  the  tubes 
of  a  spy-glass,  and  terminates  in  a  little  sting.  The  abdomen, 
which  in  the  females  appears  to  consist  of  but  three  or  four  rings,  is 
concave  or  flat  beneath,  and  can  be  flexed  on  the  pectus,  in  which 
state  the  Insect  is  globular. 

This  tribe  comprises  the  genus 

Chkysis,  Lin. 
The  lustre  and  richness  of  the  colours  which  decorate  these  Insects  may 
challenge  a  comparison  with  those  of  the  Humming-birds,  and  have  entitled 
them  to  the  common  appellation  of  Golden  Wasps,  or  Guipes  dories.  They 
are  seen  walking  about  in  a  continued  state  of  agitation,  and  with  hasty 
motions,  on  walls  and  fences  exposed  to  the  burning  ardour  of  the  sun. 
They  are  also  found  on  flowers.  Their  body  is  elongated  and  covered  with 
a  firm  tegument.  Their  antennas  are  filiform,  geniculate,  vibratile,  and 
composed  of  thirteen  joints  in  both  sexes.  The  mandibles  are  naiTow,  ar- 
cuated, and  pointed.  The  ligula  is  most  frequently  emarginated.  The 
thorax  is  semi-cylindrical,  and  presents  several  sutures  or  impressed  and 
transverse  lines.  The  abdomen  of  the  greater  number  forms  a  semi-oval 
truncated  at  base,  and  at  the  first  glance  seems  suspended  to  the  thorax  by 
its  whole  width;  the  last  ring  is  frequently  marked  by  large  punctures  and 
terminates  by  dentations. 

The  Chrysides  deposit  their  ova  in  the  nests  of  the  solitary  Mason  Bees, 
or  in  those  of  other  Hymenoptera.     Their  larvae  devour  those  of  the  latter. 

This  genus  now  forms  several  subgenera,  such  as  Pamopes,  Stilbum, 
Elampus,  8ic. 


454  INSKCTA. 

The  second  section  of  the  Hymenopterp.,  that  of  the  Aculeata, 
differs  from  the  first  in  the  absence  of  the  ovipositor.  A  concealed 
and  retractile  sting  composed  of  three  pieces  usually  supplies  the 
place  of  it 'in  the  females,  and  in  the  neuters  of  species  which  form 
communities.  Sometimes,  as  in  certain  Ants,  the  sting  is  wanting, 
and  the  Insect  defends  itself  by  the  ejaculation  of  an  acid  liquid  con- 
tained in  special  glandular  reservoirs. 

The  Hymenoptera  of  this  section  always  have  their  antennae  sim- 
ple, and  composed  of  a  constant  number  of  joints,  namely,  of  thirteen 
in  the  males,  and  twelve  in  the  females.  The  palpi  are  generally 
filiform,  those  of  the  maxillse,  frequently  the  longest,  having  six 
joints,  and  those  of  the  labium  four.  The  mandibles  are  smaller, 
and  frequently  less  dentated  in  the  males  than  in  the  opposite  sex. 
The  abdomen,  united  to  the  thorax  by  a  thread  or  pedicle,  is  com- 
posed of  seven  rings  in  the  males,  and  of  six  in  the  females.  The 
four  wings  are  always  veined. 

The  larvae  are  always  destitute  of  feet,  and  feed  on  aliments  pre- 
sented to  them  by  the  females  or  neuters,  consisting  either  of  the 
bodies  of  Insects,  the  juices  of  fruits,  or  a  mixture  of  pollen,  stamina 
and  honey. 

This  section  is  divived  into  four  families. 


FAMILY  I. 

HETEROGYNA.(I) 

The  first  family  of  our  second  section  is  composed  of  two  or 
three  kinds  of  individuals,  the  most  common  of  which,  the  neuters 
and  females,  are  apterous,  and  but  rarely  furnished  with  very  distinct 
ocelli. 

Their  antennae  are  always  geniculate,  and  the  ligula  is  small, 
rounded  and  concave,  or  cochleariform. 

Some  form  communities  in  which  we  find  three  kinds  of  indivi- 
duals, of  which  the  males  and  females  are  winged,  and  the  neuters 
apterous.  In  the  two  last  the  antennas  gradually  enlarge,  and  the 
length  of  their  first  joint  is  at  least  equal  to  that  of  the  third  of  the 
whole  organ;  the  second  is  almost  as  long  as  the  third,  and  has  the 


(1)  Those  in  which  the  females  differ  from  the  males  or  are  heterogynoiw. 


HYMENOPTERA.  455 

form  of  a  reversed  cone.     The  labrum  of  the  neuters  is  large,  cor- 
neous, and  falls  perpendicularly  under  the  mandibles. 
These  Hymenoptera  compose  the  genus 

Formica,  Lin. 
Or  that  of  the  Ants,  so  highly  celebrated  for  their  foresight,  and  so  well 
known,  some  by  their  depredations  in  our  houses,  where  they  attack  our 
sugar  and  preserved  viands,  communicating  to  them  at  the  same  time  a 
musky  and  disagreeable  odour,  and  others  by  the  injury  they  do  to  our 
trees,  by  gnawing  their  interior  in  order  to  form  domicils  for  their  colonies. 

The  abdominal  pedicle  of  these  Insects  is  in  the  form  of  a  scale  or  knot, 
either  double  or  single,  a  character  by  which  they  are  easily  recognized. 
Their  antennae  are  geniculate,  and  usually  somewhat  largest  near  the  extre- 
mity; the  head  is  triangular,  with  oval  or  rounded  and  entire  eyes,  and  the 
clypeus  large;  the  mandibles  are  very  strong  in  the  greater  number,  but 
vary  greatly  as  to  form  in  the  neuters;  the  maxillae  and  labium  are  small; 
the  palpi  are  filiform,  and  those  of  the  maxillae  the  longest;  the  thorax  is 
compressed  laterally,  and  the  almost  ovoidal  abdomen  furnished,  in  the  fe- 
males and  neuters,  sometimes  with  a  sting,  and  sometimes  with  glands  that 
secrete  a  particular  acid  called ybrmic. 

They  form  communities  which  are  frequently  extremely  numerous. 
Each  species  consists  of  three  kinds  of  individuals:  males  and  females  which 
are  furnished  with  long  wings,  less  veined  than  those  of  the  other  Hymen- 
optera of  this  section,  and  very  deciduous;  and  neuters,  destitute  of  wings, 
which  are  merely  females  with  imperfect  ovaries.  The  males  and  females 
are  merely  found  within  the  domicU  in  transitu.  They  leave  it  the  moment 
their  wings  are  developed.  The  females  wander  to  a  distance  from 
their  birth-place,  and  having  detached  their  wings  by  means  of  their  feet, 
found  a  new  colony.  Some  of  those  however  which  are  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  ant-hills  are  arrested  by  the  neuters,  who  force  them  to  return  to  their 
domicil,  tear  off  their  wings,  prevent  them  from  leaving  it,  and  force  them 
to  deposit  their  eggs  there — it  is  thought,  however,  that  they  are  violently 
expelled  the  moment  that  operation  is  effected. 

The  neuters,  which  are  distinct,  not  only  by  the  want  of  wings  and  ocelli, 
but  also  by  the  size  of  their  head,  the  strength  of  their  mandibles,  their 
more  compressed  and  frequently  knotted  thorax,  and  their  proportionally 
longer  legs,  have  the  sole  charge  of  all  the  economy  of  the  habitation,  and 
the  rearing  of  the  young.  The  nature  and  form  of  their  nests  or  ant-hills 
vary  according  to  the  particular  instinct  of  the  species.  They  usually  es- 
tablish it  in  the  ground;  in  its  construction  some  only  employ  particles  of 
earth,  and  almost  entirely  conceal  it;  others  seize  on  fragments  of  various 
bodies  and  with  them  raise  conical  or  dome-like  hillocks  over  the  spot  in 
which  they  are  domiciliated.  Some  establish  their  dwelling  in  the  trunks 
of  old  trees,  the  interior  of  which  they  perforate  in  every  direction  in  the 
manner  of  a  labyrinth,  in  which  the  detached  particles  are  also  employed. 


456  INSECTA. 

Various  and  apparently  irregular  galleries  lead  to  the  particular  residence 
of  their  young. 

The  neuters  roam  abroad  in  search  of  provisions,  appear  to  inter-commu- 
nicate the  success  of  their  labours  by  the  senses  of  touch  and  smell,  and  to 
aid  and  assist  each  other.  Fruit,  Insects,  or  their  larvae,  dead  bodies  of 
small  quadrupeds  and  birds,  &c.,  constitute  their  food.  They  feed  the 
larvs  with  their  mouths,  transport  them  in  fine  weather  to  the  external  su- 
perficies of  the  hill,  in  order  that  they  may  receive  additional  warmth,  and 
take  them  down  again  on  the  approach  of  night  or  bad  weather,  defend 
them  from  their  enemies,  and  look  to  their  preservation  with  the  greatest 
fidelity,  particularly  when  the  hill  is  disturbed.  They  pay  equal  attention 
to  the  nymphs,  some  of  which  are  enclosed  in  a  cocoon,  and  the  others 
naked;  they  tear  open  the  envelope  of  the  former  when  the  moment  of  their 
ultimate  metamorphosis  has  arrived.  The  name  of  eggs  is  vulgarly  applied 
to  the  larvae  and  nymphs. 

Most  Ant-hills  are  wholly  composed  of  individuals  of  the  same  species. 
Nature,  however,  has  deviated  fx-om  this  plan  with  respect  to  the  F.  roussa- 
tre  or  Amazon-ant,  and  that  which  I  have  called  the  sanguinea.  Their 
neuters,  by  open  violence,  procure  auxiliaries  of  their  own  caste,  but  of 
different  species,  which  I  have  designated  by  the  names  of  noir-cendr^e  and 
mineuse.  When  the  heat  of  the  day  begins  to  lessen,  and  exactly  at  the 
same  hour,  at  least  for  several  days,  the  Amazons  or  Legionaries  quit  their 
nest,  advance  in  a  sohd  column,  more  or  less  numerous  or  according  to  the 
extent  of  the  population,  and  march  upon  the  Ant-hill  they  wish  to  attack. 
They  soon  penetrate  into  it  notwithstanding  the  opposition  of  the  inhabit- 
ants, seize  the  larv^  and  nymphs  of  the  neuters  peculiar  to  the  invaded 
community,  and  transport  them  in  the  same  warlike  order  to  their  own 
domicil,  where  they  are  attended  to  in  common  with  the  posterity  of  their 
conquerors,  by  other  neuters  of  their  own  species  in  a  perfect  state  that 
have  either  been  metamorphosed  there,  or  tornfrom  then*  original  dwelling. 
Such  is  the  composition  of  the  mixed  Ant-hills. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  Ant  is  extravagantly  fond  of  a  saccharine  liquid 
that  exudes  from  the  bodies  of  the  Aphides  and  Gallinsects.  Four  or  five 
species  convey  both  these  Aphides  and  their  eggs,  particularly  in  bad  weather, 
to  the  bottom  of  their  nests,  and  even  fight  for  the  right  of  possession. 
Some  construct  little  galleries  of  earth,  leading  from  the  Ant-hill,  which 
extend  throughout  the  entire  length  of  trees  to  the  very  branches  that  are 
loaded  with  these  Insects. 

Both  males  and  females  perish  towards  the  close  of  autumn,  or  on  the 
first  approach  of  winter.  The  labourers  pass  the  winter  in  their  hill  in  a 
torpid  state. 

This  gi-eat  genus  is  now  divided  into  various  subgenera. 

The  remaining  Heterogyna  are  solitary  Insects.  Each  species 
is  composed  of  but  two  kinds  of  individuals,  winged  males  and  ap- 


HYMENOPTERA.  457 

terous  females;   the  latter  are  always  armed  with  a  powerful  sting. 
The  antennae  are  filiform  or  setaceou?,  and  vibratile;  their  first  and 
third  joints  are  elongated,  and  the  length  of  the  first  is  never  equal 
to  the  third  of  the  total  length  of  the  whole  organ. 
They  form  tlie  genus 

MuTiLLA,  Lin. 
These  Insects  are  found  in  hot  and  sandy  localities.     The  female  runs 
with  great  quickness,  and  is  always  seen  on  the  ground.     The  males  fre- 
quently alight  on  flowers,  but  their  mode  of  life  is  unknown. 

FAMILY  II. 

FOSSORES.(l) 

The  second  family  of  this  section  comprises  those  Hymenoptera 
armed  with  a  sting,  in  which  all  the  individuals  of  both  sexes  are 
furnished  with  wings,  and  live  solitarily;  in  which  the  legs  are  ex- 
clusively adapted  for  walking,  and  in  several  for  digging.  The 
ligula  is  always  more  or  less  widened  at  its  extremity,  and  never 
filiform  or  setaceous.     The  wings  are  always  extended. 

They  compose  the  genus 

Sphex,  Lin. 
Most  females  of  this  genus  place  beside  their  eggs,  in  the  nests  they  have 
constructed,  most  commonly  in  the  earth  or  in  wood,  various  Insects  or 
their  larvae,  and  sometimes  Ai-achnides,  previously  pierced  with  their  sting, 
to  serve  as  food  for  their  young.  The  larva  are  always  destitute  of  feet, 
resemble  little  worms,  and  undergo  a  metamorphosis  in  the  cocoon  they 
have  spun  previous  to  becoming  nymphs.  The  perfect  Insect  is  usually 
very  active  and  lives  on  flowers.  The  maxillae  and  hp  are  elongated  and  in 
the  form  of  a  proboscis  in  many. 

The  numerous  subgenera  derived  from  the  great  genus  Sphex,  are  now 
distributed  into  seven  principal  sections,  viz.  the  Scolietae,  Sapigytes,  Sphe^ 
gides,  Btmbecides,  Larrates,  Nyasonea  and  Crabroniies. 

(1)  Diggers. 


3  H 


458  INSECTA. 

FAMILY  III. 

DIPLOPTERA. 

The  third  family  of  the  Aculeata  is  the  only  one  of  that  section, 
in  which  with  but  few  exceptions  we  find  the  superior  vnngs  folded 
longitudinally.  The  antennae  are  usually  geniculate  and  clavate,  or 
thickest  at  the  end.  The  eyes  are  emarginated.  The  prothorax  is 
prolonged  behind,  on  each  side,  to  the  origin  of  the  wings.  The 
body  is  glabrous  or  nearly  so,  and  black,  more  or  less  maculated 
with  yellow  or  fulvous. 

Many  of  these  Insects  form  temporary  communities  composed  of 
three  sorts  of  individuals,  males,  females,  and  neuters.  Such  of  the 
females  as  survive  the  severity  of  the  winter  commence  the  nest  and 
take  care  of  the  larvee.  They  are  subsequently  assisted  by  the  neu- 
ters. We  will  divide  the  Diploptera  into  two  tribes.  The  type  of 
the  first,  that  of  the  Masarides,  Lat.,  is  the  genus 

Masaris,  Fab. 
The  antennje  at  the  first  glance  seem  to  be  composed  of  but  eight  joints, 
the  eighth,  with  the  following  ones,  forming  an  almost  indistinctly  articu- 
lated club,  rounded  or  very  obtuse  at  the  end.  The  ligula  is  terminated  by 
two  threads  which  can  be  withdrawn  into  a  tube  formed  by  its  base.  There 
are  but  two  complete  cubital  cells  in  the  superior  wings.  The  middle  of 
the  anterior  margin  of  the  clypeus  is  emarginated  and  receives  the  labrum 
in  the  notch. 

The  second  tribe  of  the  Diploptera,  that  of  the  Vesparue,  is  com- 
posed of  the  genus 

Vespa,  Lin. 
Where  the  antennae  always  present  thirteen  distinct  joints  in  the  males  and 
terminate  in  an  elongated,  pointed,  and  sometimes — in  the  males — hooked 
extremity:  they  are  always  geniculate,  at  least  in  the  females  and  neuters. 
The  ligula  is  sometimes  divided  into  four  plumose  filaments,  and  sometimes 
bilobate  with  four  glandular  points  at  the  end,  one  on  each  lateral  lobe,  and 
the  remaining  two  on  the  intermediate  one,  which  is  larger,  widened,  and 
emarginated  or  bifid  at  its  extremity.  The  mandibles  are  strong  and  den- 
tated.  The  clypeus  is  large.  The  females  and  neuters  are  armed  with  an 
extremely  powerful  and  venomous  sting.  Several  of  them  form  communi- 
ties composed  of  the  three  sorts  of  individuals. 

The  larvae  are  vermiform,  destitute  of  feet,  and  enclosed  separately  in  a 


HYMEXOPTERA.  459 

cell  where  they  sometimes  live  on  the  bodies  of  Insects  placed  thereby  the 
mother  at  the  time  she  deposited  the  egg,  and  sometimes  on  the  nectar  of 
flowers,  juices  of  fruits  and  animal  matters,  elaborated  in  the  stomach  of 
the  mother,  or  that  of  the  neuters,  who  feed  them  daily. 
•  Wasps  properly  so  called,  unite  in  numerous  societies  composed  of  males, 
females  and  neuters.  The  two  last  detach  particles  of  old  wood  or  bark 
with  their  mandibles,  moisten  and  reduce  them  into  a  pultaceous  mass  re- 
sembling that  of  paper  or  pasteboard,  and  construct  combs  or  nests  with  it 
that  are  usually  horizontal,  and  suspended  above  by  one  or  more  pedicles; 
on  the  inferior  side  is  a  range  of  vertical  cells  in  the  form  of  hexagonal  and 
truncated  pyramids.  These  cells  are  approximated  exclusively  to  the  use 
of  the  larvae  and  nymphs,  a  cell  to  each.  The  immber  of  combs  that  com- 
pose this  nest  varies.  It  is  sometimes  exposed,  and  at  others  surrounded 
by  an  envelope,  pierced  with  a  common  and  almost  always  central  opening, 
which  sometimes  corresponds  to  a  series  of  holes  which  communicate  with 
the  interior;  the  combs  adhere  to  the  parietes  of  the  envelope,  whether 
they  be  in  the  open  air  or  concealed  in  the  earth  or  hollows  of  trees.  The 
figure  of  these  structures  varies  according  to  the  species. 

The  females  commence  the  business  alone,  and  lay  eggs  that  produce 
neuters  or  laboui-ers,  which  assist  in  enlarging  the  nest  and  taking  care  of 
the  succeeding  young  ones.  The  community  is  solely  composed  of  these 
two  kinds  of  individuals  until  the  beginning  of  autumn,  at  which  period  the 
young  males  and  females  make  their  appearance.  All  the  larvse  and  nymphs 
which  cannot  complete  their  ultimate  metamorphosis  before  the  month  of 
November  are  put  to  death  and  dragged  from  their  cells  by  the  labourers, 
which  perish  along  with  the  males  on  the  approach  of  winter.  Some  of 
the  females  survive,  and  in  the  spring  become  the  founders  of  anew  colony. 
Wasps  feed  on  Insects,  viands  of  various  sorts,  or  fruit,  and  nourish  their 
larvse  with  the  juices  of  these  substances.  The  latter,  which  on  account 
of  the  inferior  situation  of  the  mouths  of  their  cells  are  placed  with  their 
head  downwards,  shut  themselves  up  and  spin  a  cocoon  when  about  to  be- 
come nymphs. 


FAMILY  IV. 

ANTHOPHILA,  Lat.(l) 

The  fourth  and  last  family  of  the  Aculeata,  in  the  faculty  of  col- 
lecting the  pollen  of  flowers,  usually  possessed  by  the  two  posterior 
legs,  presents  a  peculiar  character  which  distinguishes  it  from  all 
other  families  of  Insects.     The  first  joint  of  the  tarsi  of  those  legs 


( 1 )  Lovers  of  flowers. 


460  INSECTA. 

is  very  large,  strongly  compressed,  and  forms  a  square  paletle  or  a 
reversed  triangle. 

The  maxillae  and  lips  are  most  commonly  very  long,  and  compose 
a  sort  of  proboscis.  The  ligula  is  most  frequently  shaped  like  the 
head  of  a  lance,  or  resembles  a  very  long  thread,  the  extremity  of 
which  is  downy  or  hairy.  The  larvae  feed  exclusively  on  honey  and 
the  pollen  of  flowers.  The  perfect  Insect  feeds  on  the  honey  of  the 
latter  only. 

These  Hymenoptera  embrace  the  genus 

Apis,  Lin. 
Or  that  of  the  Bees,  which  I  will  divide  into  two  sections. 

In  those  of  the  first  or  the  Andrenetje,  Lat.,  the  intermediate  division 
of  the  ligula  is  cordiform  or  lanceolate,  shorter  than  its  sheath,  and  bent 
underneath  in  some,  and  almost  straight  in  others. 

These  Insects  live  sohtarily,  and  consist  of  but  two  kinds  of  individuals, 
males  and  females.  Most  of  the  females  collect  the  pollen  of  flowers  with 
the  hairs  of  their  posterior  legs,  and  with  the  aid  of  a  little  honey  form  it 
into  a  paste  (bee-bread),  with  which  they  feed  their  larvae.  They  excavate 
deep  holes,  and  frequently  in  hard  ground,  along  the  borders  of  roads,  or 
in  the  fields,  in  which  they  place  this  paste  along  with  an  egg;  they  then 
close  the  aperture  with  earth. 

rhey  form  various  genera,  such  as  Hylseus,  Colletes,  &c. 

The  second  section  of  the  Anthophila,  that  of  the  Apiari^,  Lat-,  com- 
prises those  species  in  which  the  mediate  division  of  the  ligula  is  at  least  as 
long  as  the  mentum  or  its  tubular  shield,  and  is  fiUform  or  setaceous.  The 
maxillae  and  labium  are  much  elongated  and  form  a  sort  of  proboscis  which, 
when  at  rest,  is  geniculate  and  bent  under. 

The  Apiarise  either  live  solitarily  or  form  communities. 

The  former  never  consist  of  more  than  the  ordinary  number  of  Individuals, 
and  each  female  provides  singly  for  her  young.  The  posterior  legs  of  their 
females  are  neither  furnished  with  a  brush  on  the  inner  side  of  the  first 
joint  of  the  tarsi,  nor  with  a  particular  depression  on  the  exterior  side  of 
their  tibiae;  this  side,  as  well  as  the  same  of  the  first  joint  of  the  tarsi,  is  most 
commonly  and  densely'  covered  with  hairs. 

One  of  the  most  common  genera  of  this  section,  vulgarly  called  Humble- 
Bees,  is  the 

Xtlocopa,  Lat.  Fab. 
The  Xylocopac  resemble  large  IJombi.  Their  body  is  usually  black, 
sometimes  partially  coveied  vvitli  a  j'ellow  down;  the  wings  are  frequently 
violet,  cupreous  or  green,  and  brilliant.  The  male,  in  several  species, 
differs  considerably  from  the  female.  Their  eyes  are  large  and  approxi- 
mated superiorly.     Tlieir  anterior  legs  are  dilated  and  ciliated. 


HYMENOPTERA.  461 

X  violacea,  L.  About  one  inch  in  len^h;  black,  with  violet-black  wings, 
a  russet  ring  round  tlie  antennae  of  the  male.  The  female  bores  a  long 
vertical  hole  in  the  body  she  has  selected,  usually  old  dry  wood  exposed 
to  the  sun,  and  pai-allel  to  its  surface.  It  is  divided  into  several  cells  by 
horizontal  septa  formed  with  agglutinated  raspings  of  wood.  She  then, 
commencing  with  the  lowest,  deposits  an  egg  and  some  paste  in  each  of 
them.     She  sometimes  bores  three  canals  in  the  same  piece  of  wood. 

There  are  several  other  genera  of  solitary  Apiai-iae. 

The  last  of  the  Apiarise  form  communities  composed  of  maZes  and /twia/es, 
and  a  considerable  number  of  neuters  or  labourers.  In  tlie  internal  face  of 
the  posterior  tibiae  of  these  latter  individuals  is  a  smooth  depression,  in 
which  they  place  the  pellet  of  pollen  collected  with  the  silken  down  or 
brush  attached  to  the  inner  side  of  the  first  joint  of  the  tarsi  of  the  same 
\q^.  The  maxillary  palpi  are  veiy  small  and  formed  of  a  single  joint.  The 
antennae  are  geniculate. 

Sometimes  the  posterior  tibiae  are  terminated  by  two  spines,  as  in 

BoMDus,  Lat.  Fab. 

Where  the  labrum  is  transversal,  the  pseudo-proboscis  is  much  shorter 
than  the  body,  and  the  second  joint  of  the  labial  palpi  terminates  in  a  point, 
bearing  the  two  others  on  its  outer  side. 

These  Insects(l)  are  well  known  to  children,  who  frequently  put  them 
to  death  in  order  to  obtain  the  honey  contained  within  their  body.  They 
inhabit  subterranean  nests  in  communities  of  fifty  or  sixty,  and  sometimes 
of  two  or  three  hundred  individuals.  The  society  is  dissolved  on  the  ap- 
proach of  winter.  It  is  composed  of  males,  distinguished  by  their  small 
size,  reduced  head,  narrow  mandibles,  bearded,  and  terminated  by  two 
teeth,  and  frequently  by  a  difference  of  colours;  of  females,  which  are 
larger  than  the  others,  furnished  with  mandibles  formed  like  a  spoon,  as  is 
also  the  case  with  those  of  the  neuters  or  labourers,-  the  latter,  as  to  size,  are 
intermediate  between  the  males  and  females. 

Such  of  the  ordinary  females  as  have  escaped  the  severity  of  the  winter 
take  advantage  of  the  first  fine  weather  to  construct  their  nests.  One  spe- 
cies— Apis  lapidaria — establishes  itself  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  under 
stones,  but  all  the  others  form  their  habitation  in  it,  frequently  descending 
to  a  depth  of  one  or  two  feet,  in  the  way  we  are  about  to  describe.  Dry 
plains,  fields,  and  hills  are  the  locaUties  they  select.  These  subterranean 
cavities,  which  are  of  considerable  extent  and  wider  than  high,  have  the 
figure  of  a  dome.  The  ceiling  is  constructed  with  earth  and  with  moss, 
carded  by  these  Insects,  which  they  transport  there,  fibre  by  fibre,  entering 
the  cavity  backwards.  A  coating  of  coarse  wax  is  laid  over  its  walls.  Some- 
times a  simple  opening,  designedly  left  at  the  bottom  of  the  nest,  serves 


(I)  They  are  commonly  confounded  with  the  Xylocopae,  and  are  also 
called  Humbk-Bees. 


462  INSECTA. 

for  an  entrance,  and  then  again  a  winding  passage  covered  with  moss,  and 
a  foot  or  two  long,  leads  to  the  domicil.  The  bottom  of  the  cavity  is  lined 
with  a  layer  of  leaves,  for  the  accommodation  of  the  brood.  The  females 
first  place  brown,  irregular,  mamilliform  masses  of  wax  there,  called  joa/^e 
by  Reaumiu',  and  which,  on  account  of  their  shape  and  colour,  he  compares 
to  truffles.  Their  internal  cavities  are  destined  to  enclose  the  eggs  and 
larvx.  There  the  latter  live  in  society  until  the  moment  has  arrived  when 
they  are  to  become  nymphs;  they  then  separate  and  spin  ovoid  and  silken 
cocoons,  laid  vertically  against  each  other.  In  this  state  the  Insect  is  always 
reversed,  or,  like  the  female  nymphs  of  the  common  Bee,  with  the  head 
downwards;  we  always  find  these  cocoons  perforated  inferiorly,  when  the 
perfect  Insects  have  left  them.  Reaumur  says  that  the  larvse  feed  on  the 
wax  which  forms  then*  dwelling;  according  to  Huber,  it  merely  protects 
them  from  cold  and  wet,  their  aliment  consisting  of  a  tolerably  large  quan- 
tity of  pollen  moistened  with  honey,  with  which  the  labourers  carefully 
supply  them;  when  it  is  consumed  they  perforate  the  cover  of  their  cells, 
fm'nish  them  with  more,  and  shut  them  up  again.  They  even  enlarge  them 
when  the  increased  growth  of  the  larva:  causes  them  to  be  too  much  confined. 
We  also  find  in  these  nests  three  or  four  small  bodies  composed  of  brown 
wax,  or  the  same  matter  as  the  patee,  and  shaped  like  tumblers  or  almost 
cylindrical  pots,  always  open,  and  more  or  less  filled  with  good  honey. 
These  reservoirs  of  the  honey  are  not  always  placed  in  the  same  situation. 

The  larvse  are  hatched  in  four  or  five  days  after  the  eggs  have  been  laid, 
and  complete  their  metamorphosis  in  tlie  months  of  June  and  July.  The 
labourers  remove  the  wax  that  clogs  their  cocoon  to  facilitate  their  issue, 
and  assist  the  female  in  her  work.  The  number  of  cells  which  serve  as 
habitations  to  the  larvee  and  nymphs  increases,  and  they  form  irregular 
combs  placed  in  stories,  on  the  edges  of  which  we  particularly  observe  the 
brown  patee  of  Reaumur.  According  to  Huber,  the  labourers  are  ex- 
tremely fond  of  the  ova  of  the  female,  and  sometimes,  in  her  absence,  even 
break  open  the  cells  in  which  they  are  deposited,  in  order  to  suck  the 
milky  fluid  they  contain!  a  most  extraordinary  fact,  which  seems  to  belie 
the  known  attachment  of  the  labourers  for  the  germs  of  that  race  of  which 
they  are  the  protectors  and  guardians.  The  wax  produced  by  them,  ac- 
cording to  this  same  naturalist,  has  the  same  origin  as  that  of  our  domestic 
Bee,  or  is  merely  elaborated  honey  that  also  transudes  through  the  intervals 
of  some  of  the  abdominal  annuli. 

Sometimes  the  social  Apiarix  have  no  spines  at  the  extremity  of  their 
posterior  libise,  as  in 

Apis,  Lat. 

Or  that  of  the  Bee  properly  so  called,  where  the  first  joint  of  the  poste- 
rior tarsi  of  the  labourers  forms  a  long  square,  and  is  furnished  on  the  inner 
side  with  a  silken  down  divided  into  ti-ansverse  or  striated  bands. 

Apis  mellifica^  lu,    (The  Honey-Bee).    Blackish;  scutellum  and  abdomen 


IIYMENOPTERA.  463 

of  the  same  colour;  a  transverse  greyish  band,  formed  of  down,  at  the  base 
of  the  third  and  following  abdominal  annull. 

The  true  Bees  are  much  smaller  and  more  oblong  than  the  Bombi.  Their 
body  is  merely  furnished  with  down  in  particular  places,  and  its  colours 
vary  but  little.  Their  communities  consist  of  labourers  or  neuters,  usually 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  thousand  in  number,  and  sometimes  extending  to 
thirty  thousand;  of  from  six  to  eight  hundred  males,  and  in  some  hives  of  a 
thousand  and  more,  called  Drones,  and  commonly  of  a  single  female,  con- 
sidered by  the  ancients  as  tlie  king  or  head  of  the  community,  and  styled  a 
queen  by  us. 

The  labourers,  smaller  than  the  others,  have  their  antennae  composed  of 
twelve  joints,  and  the  abdomen  of  six  annuli;  the  first  joint  of  the  posterior 
tarsi,  or  the  square  piece,  is  dilated  in  the  form  of  a  pointed  palette,  at  the 
exterior  angle  of  their  base,  and  densely  covered  on  its  inner  side  with  short 
fine,  silky  down;  they  are  armed  with  a  sting.  The  female  presents  the 
same  characters,  but  the  abdomen  of  the  labourers  is  shorter.  Their  man- 
dibles are  spoon-shaped,  and  not  dentated.  In  the  outer  side  of  their  pos- 
terior tibise  is  that  smooth  depression  edged  with  hairs,  called  the  corbeille 
or  basket. 

The  males  and  females  are  the  largest;  their  mandibles  are  hairy  and 
emarginated  under  the  point;  the  proboscis  is  shorter,  particularly  in  the 
males.  These  latter  differ  from  the  former  and  from  the  labourers  in  their 
antennx,  which  consist  of  thirteen  joints;  in  their  more  rounded  head  and 
larger  eyes,  elongated  and  united  above;  In  their  smaller  and  more  hairy 
mandibles,  in  the  absence  of  a  sting,  in  the  four  short  anterior  legs,  of 
which  the  two  first  are  arcuated,  and  finally  in  the  square  piece  which  has 
neither  palette  nor  silken  brush. 

The  interior  of  the  abdominal  cavity  of  the  females  and  labourers  presents 
two  stomachs,  the  intestines,  and  poison  sac.  A  tolerably  large  aperture 
situated  at  the  superior  base  of  the  proboscis,  under  the  labrum,  and  closed 
by  a  little  triangular  piece  called  langue  by  Reaumer,  the  epipharynx  of 
Savigny,  transmits  the  aliment  and  leads  to  a  slender  cEsophagus  that  tra- 
yerses  the  interior  of  the  thorax,  and  thence  passes  to  the  anterior  stomach, 
or  rather  crop,  which  contains  the  honey.  The  following  stomach,  accord- 
ing to  Reaumur,  contains  the  pollen  or  wax-like  matter,  and  has  its  surface 
marked  by  annular  and  transverse  rugae;  in  the  manner  of  hoops.  This 
abdominal  cavity  of  the  females  contains  two  large  ovaries  composed  of 
numerous  sacculi,  each  of  which  encloses  from  sixteen  to  seventeen  eggs. 
According  to  the  observations  of  Huber,  Jun.,  the  inferior  semi-annuli 
of  the  abdomen  of  the  labourers,  the  first  and  last  excepted,  have  each,  on 
their  internal  surface,  two  pouches  in  which  the  wax  Is  secreted  and  mould- 
ed into  laminae,  that  afterwards  ooze  out  through  the  intervals  between  the 
rings. 

These  observations  on  the  internal  anatomy  of  the  Bee,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  some  few  modifications,  will  apply  to  the  Bombi  properly  so  called. 
Wax,  according  to  the  experiments  of  the  same  naturalists,  is  nothing  more 


464  INSECTA. 

than  elaborated  honey,  and  the  pollen  mixed  with  a  little  of  that  substance 
only  serves  as  food  for  these  Insects  and  their  larv3e. 

We  have  seen  that  the  labourers  or  working  bees  resemble  the  females 
in  several  particulars.  Certain  curious  experiments  have  proved  that  they 
are  of  one  sex,  and  that  they  are  merely  females  that  have  not  been  fully 
developed  in  consequence  of  the  nature  of  the  food  given  to  them  while  in 
the  state  of  larva. 

The  substance  of  which  their  combs  are  composed,  being  ill  adapted  to 
resist  the  effects  of  the  weather,  and  as  they  do  not  construct  a  nest  or  ge- 
neral envelope,  these  Insects  can  only  establish  their  colonies  in  cavities 
where  their  work  finds  a  natural  shelter.  The  labourers,  which  are  alone 
charged  with  the  work,  form  those  laminse  composed  of  two  opposing  rows 
of  hexagonal  alveoli  with  a  pyramidal  base  formed  of  three  rhombs.  These 
alveoli  have  received  the  name  oi  cells,  and  each  lamina  that  of  comb.  They 
are  always  perpendicular,  parallel,  fixed  at  top  or  by  one  of  the  edges,  and 
separated  by  spaces  which  allow  the  Bees  to  pass  between  them.  The 
cells  are  thus  placed  horizontally.  Distinguished  geometricians  have  de- 
monstrated that  their  form  is  the  most  economical  with  respect  to  the  ex- 
penditure of  wax,  and  the  most  advantageous  as  to  the  extent  of  the  space 
contained  in  each  cell.  Bees,  however,  know  how  to  modify  this  form  ac- 
cording to  circumstances.  They  cut  away  and  fit  their  faces  piece  by  piece. 
These  ceUs,  with  the  exception  of  that  proper  to  the  larva  and  nymph  of 
the  female,  are  almost  equal;  some  contain  the  brood,  and  the  remainder 
the  honey  and  pollen  of  flowers.  Some  of  the  cells  containing  honey  are 
open,  and  the  remainder,  or  those  held  in  reserve,  are  sealed  up  with  a  flat 
or  slightly  convex  lid.  The  royal  cells,  which  vary  in  number  from  two  to 
forty,  are  much  larger,  almost  cylindrical,  somewhat  narrower  at  the  end,  and 
have  little  cavities  on  their  external  surface.  They  usually  hang  from  the 
margin  of  the  combs,  in  the  manner  of  stalactites,  so  that  the  larvae  con- 
tained in  them  are  in  a  reversed  position.  Some  of  them  weigh  as  much 
as  one  hundred  and  fifty  of  the  ordinary  cells.  The  cells  of  the  males  are 
of  an  intermediate  size,  between  those  of  the  preceding  and  those  of  the 
labourers,  and  placed  here  and  there.  Bees  always  continue  their  combs 
from  above  downwards.  They  stop  the  httle  chinks  and  apertures  of  their 
domicil  with  a  species  of  mastich,  which  they  collect  from  different  ti-ees, 
called  propolis. 

Bees  take  care  to  furnish  their  larvae  with  patee  in  quantities  proportioned 
to  their  age,  and  on  which  they  cling  with  their  bodies  curved  into  an  arc. 
Six  or  seven  days  after  they  are  hatched,  they  prepare  to  undergo  their 
metamorphosis.  Shut  up  in  their  cells  by  the  labourers  who  close  the  ori- 
fice with  a  convex  lid,  they  line  the  parieties  of  their  domicil  with  a  tissue  of 
silk,  spin  a  cocoon,  become  nymphs,  and,  at  the  expiration  of  about  twelve 
days,  issue  forth  in  their  perfect  state.  The  labourers  immediately  clean  out 
the  vacant  cells,  in  order  that  they  may  be  prepared  for  the  reception  of 
another  t^^.    This  is  not  the  case  however  with  the  royal  cells;  they  are 


HYMENOPTERA.  465 

destroyed  and  new  onc3  constructed  if  necessary.  The  eggs  containing 
males  are  produced  two  months  later,  and  those  producing  females  soon 
after  the  latter. 

Dreadful  combats  sometimes  take  place  among  Bees.  At  a  particular 
epoch  the  laboui-ers  put  the  drones  to  death,  extending  the  carnage  even 
to  the  larvx  and  nymphs  of  that  sex. 

Bees  have  enemies  botli  external  and  internal,  and  are  subject  to  various 
diseases.   . 

The  true  Bees  are  only  found  in  the  eastern  continent;  and  those  of 
southern  and  eastern  Europe,  and  of  Egypt,  differ  from  those  that  inhabit 
France,  which  have  been  transported  to  America  and  other  places,  where 
they  are  now  naturalized. 


ORDER  X. 
LEPID0PTERA.(1) 

The  tenth  order  of  Insects  terminates  the  series  of  those  which 
are  furnished  with  four  wings,  and  presents  characters  exclusively 
peculiar  to  it. 

Both  sides  of  the  wings  are  covered  with  small,  coloured  scales, 
resembling  farinaceous  dust,  that  are  removed  by  merely  coming  in 
contact  with  the  finger.  A  proboscis,  to  which  the  name  oilingtm 
or  tongue  has  been  affixed,  rolled  spirally  between  two  palpi,  cov- 
ered with  scales  or  hairs,  forms  the  most  important  part  of  the  mouth, 
and  is  the  instrument  with  which  these  Insects  extract  the  nectar 
from  flowers,  their  only  aliment.  In  our  general  observations  upon 
the  class  of  Insects,  we  have  seen,  that  this  proboscis  or  trunk  is 
composed  of  two  tubular^  threads,  representing  the  maxillae,  each 
bearing,  near  its  external  base,  a  very  small  (superior)  palpus  in  the 
form  of  a  tubercle.  The  apparent  (inferior)  palpi,  those  which 
form  a  sort  of  sheath  to  the  proboscis,  replace  the  labial  palpi  of  the 
triturating  Insects;  they  are  cylindrical  or  conical,  usually  turned 
up,  composed  of  three  joints,  and  inserted  in  a  fixed  labium,  which 
forms  the  paries  of  the  portion  of  the  buccal  cavity,  inferior  to  the 
proboscis.  Two  little  and  scarcely  distinct,  corneous,  and  more  or 
less  ciliated  pieces,  situated,  one  on  each  side,  on  the  anterior  and 


(1)  Scaly-winged. 
3  I 


/ 


466  INSECTA. 

saperior  margin  of  the  front  of  the  head,  near  the  eyes,  seem  to  be 
vestiges  of  mandibles.  Finally,  we  observe,  and  in  equally  exiguous 
proportions,  the  labrum  or  upper  lip. 

The  antennae  vary  and  arc  always  multiarliculated.  Two  ocelli 
are  observable  in  several  species,  but  concealed  between  the  scales. 
The  three  segments  of  which  the  trunk  of  the  hexapoda  is  composed, 
are  united  in  one  single  body;  the  first  is  very  short,  and  the  two 
others  are  confounded  together.  The  scutellum  is  triangular,  but 
the  apex  is  directed  towards  the  head.  The  wings  are  simply 
veined,  and  vary  in  size,  figure  and  position;  in  several,  the  inferior 
ones  are  plaited  longitudinally  near  their  inner  margin.  At  the 
base  of  each  of  the  superior  wings  is  a  kind  of  epaulette,  prolonged 
posteriorly,  that  corresponds  to  the  piece  called  tegula  in  the  Hy- 
menoptera.  As  it  is  more  developed  here,  I  will  call  it  pterygoda. 
The  abdomen,  composed  of  from  six  to  seven  annuli,  is  attached  to 
the  thorax  by  a  very  small  portion  of  its  diameter,  and  presents  nei- 
ther sting  nor  ovipositor  analogous  to  that  of  the  Hymenoptera.  In 
several  females,  however,  as  in  Cossus,  the  last  rings  become  nar- 
rowed, and  extended  to  form  an  oviduct  resembling  a  pointed  and 
retractile  tail.  The  tarsi  always  have  five  joints.  There  are  never 
more  than  two  kinds  of  individuals,  males  and  females. 

The  females  usually  deposit  their  ova,  frequently  very  numerous, 
on  the  vegetable  surfaces  which  are  to  nourish  their  larvae,  and  soon 
after  perish. 

The  larvae  of  Lepidopterous  Insects  are  well  known  by  the  name 
of  caterpillars.  They  have  six  squamous  or  hooked  feet,  which 
correspond  to  the  legs  of  the  perfect  Insect,  and  from  four  to  ten 
additional  membranous  ones,  the  two  last  of  which  are  situated  at 
the  posterior  extremity  of  the  body;  those  which  have  but  ten  or 
twelve  in  all,  have  been  called,  from  their  mode  of  progression,  geo- 
metrse.  Several  of  these  geomelrse,  when  at  rest,  remain  fixed  to 
llie  branches  of  plants  by  the  liind  feet  alone,  where,  in  the  form, 
colour  and  direction  of  their  body  they  resemble  a  twig;  they  can 
support  themselves  in  this  position  for  a  long  time,  without  exhibit- 
ing the  slightest  symptom  of  life.  So  fatiguing  an  attitude  must  re- 
quire prodigious  muscular  force,  and  in  fact  Lyonct  counted  four 
thousand  and  forty-one  muscles  in  the  caterpillar  of  the  Cossus  lig- 
niperda. 

The  body  of  these  larvjs  is  generally  elongated,  almost  cylindri- 


LEPIDOPTEWA.  467 

cal,  soft,  variously  coloured,  sometimes  naked,  arid  sometimes  co- 
vered with  hairs,  tubercles  and  spines.  It  is  composed  of  twclvo 
segments  or  annuli,  exclusive  of  the  head,  with  nine  stigmata  on 
each  side.  Their  head  is  invested  with  a  corneous  or  squamousi 
dermis,  and  presents  on  each  side  six  shining  granules,  which  ap- 
pear to  be  ocelli;  it  is  also  furnished  with  two  very  short  and  conical 
antennae,  and  a  mouth  composed  of  strong  mandibles,  two  maxillae, 
a  labium  and  four  small  palpi.  The  silk  they  employ  is  elaborated 
in  two  long  and  tortuous  internal  vessels,  of  which  the  attenuated 
superior  extremities  terminate  in  tlie  lif>.  A  tubular  and  conical 
mammilla  is  the  spindle  through  which  the  threads  are  spun. 

Most  caterpillars  feed  on  the  leaves  of  plants;  some  gnaw  their 
flowers,  roots,  buds  and  seeds;  others  attack  the  ligneous  or  hardest 
part  of  trees,  softening  it  by  means  of  a  fluid  which  they  disgorge. 
Certain  species  attack  our  woollens  and  furs,  thereby  doing  ys  much 
injury:  even  our  leather,  bacon,  wax  and  lard  are  not  spared  by 
them.  Several  confine  themselves  exclusively  to  a  single  article  of 
diet;  others  are  less  delicate,  and  devour  all  sorts  of  matters.(l) 

Some  of  them  form  societies,  and  frequently  live  under  a  silken 
tent,  spun  by  them  in  common,  which  even  shelters  them  during  the 
winter.  Several  construct  sheaths  for  themselves,  either  fixed  or 
portable.  Others  make  their  abode  in  the  parenchyma  of  leaves, 
where  they  form  galleries.  The  greater  number  are  diurnal.  The 
others  never  issue  forth  but  at  night.  The  severity  of  winter,  so 
fatal  to  almost  all  Insects,  does  not  affect  certain  PhalaenaB,  which 
only  appear  in  that  season. 

Caterpillars  usually  change  their  skin  four  times,  previously  to 
passing  into  the  state  of  a  nymph  or  chrysalis.  Most  of  them 
spin  a  cocoon  in  which  they  enclose  themselves.  A  frequently  red- 
dish liquor  which  lepidopterous  Insects  eject  at  the  moment 
of  their  metamorphosis,  softens  or  weakens  the  extremity  of  the  co-* 
coon,  and  facilitates  their  exit;  one  of  these  extremities  also  is  ge- 
nerally thinner  than  the  other,  or  presents  a  favourable  issue  by  the 
peculiar  disposition  of  the  fibres.  Other  caterpillars  are  contented 
with  connecting  leaves,  particles  of  earth,  or  of  the  substances  on 
which  they  have  lived,  and  thus  forming  a  rude  cocoon.     The  chry- 


(1)  One  of  the  most  evident  proofs  of  the  divine  providence  is  the  peK 
fect  coincidence  of  the  appearance  of  the  caterpillar  with  that  oi'ihe  plant 


on  which  it  is  to  feed. 


468  INSECTA. 

salides  of  the  diurnal  Lepidoptera,  ornamented  with  golden  spots, 
whence  the  term  chrysalis,  are  naked  and  fixed  by  the  posterior 
entremity  of  the  body.  The  nymphs  of  the  Lepidoptera  present  a 
special  character,  of  which  we  have  spoken  in  our  general  observa- 
tions on  the  class  of  Insects.  They  are  swathed  or  resemble  mum- 
mies. Those  of  several  Insects  of  this  order,  particularly  of  the 
Diurnae,  undergo  their  metamorphosis  in  a  few  days;  they  even  fre- 
quently produce  two  generations  in  the  course  of  the  year.  The 
caterpillars  or  chrysalides  of  others,  however,  remain  during  the 
winter  in  one  of  these  states,  and  only  appear  as  perfect  Insects  in 
the  spring  or  summer  of  the  following  year.  Generally  speaking, 
the  eggs  laid  in  the  fall  are  not  hatched  till  the  ensuing  spring.  The 
Lepidoptera  issue  from  their  envelope  in  the  usual  manner,  or 
through  a  slit  which  is  effected  on  the  back  of  the  thorax. 

The  larvaB  of  the  Ichneumonides  and  Chalcidites  deliver  us  from 
a  great  portion  of  these  destructive  animals. 

We  will  divide  this  order  into  three  families,  which  correspond  to 
the  three  genera  of  which  it  is  composed  in  the  system  of  Linneeus. 

FAMILY  I. 

DIURNA. 

This  family  is  the  only  one  in  which  the  exterior  margin  of  the 
inferior  wings  does  not  present  a  rigid,  squamous  seta  or  kind  of 
bridle  for  retaining  the  two  superior  ones.  These  latter,  and  even 
most  frequently  the  former,  are  raised  perpendicularly  when  the  In- 
sect is  at  rest.  The  antennae  are  sometimes  terminated  by  a  globu-' 
liform  inflation  or  little  club,  and  are  sometimes  almost  of  equal  thick- 
ness throughout  or  even  more  slender,  and  form  a  hooked  point  at 
the  extremity.     This  family  comprises  the  genus 

Papilio,  Lin. 

The  larvae  always  have  sixteen  feet.  The  chrysalides  are  almost  sJways 
naked,  are  attached  by  the  tail,  and  most  commonly  angular.  The  perfect 
Insect,  always  provided  with  a  proboscis  or  trunk,  flies  during  the  day  only, 
and  the  colours  which  ornament  the  under  part  of  the  wings  do  not  yield 
in  beauty  to  those  which  decorate  their  superior  surface. 

These  Insects  ai-e  now  divided  into  two  sections.    Those  of  the  first  have 


LEPIDOPTEHA.  469 

but  a  single  pair  of  spurs  or  spines  to  their  tibis,  which  are  found  on  their 
posterior  extremity.  Their  four  wings  are  raised  perpendiculai'ly  when  at 
rest.  Their  antenn2e  are  sometimes  inflated  at  the  extremity,  globuUform, 
or  in  a  little  club  truncated  and  rounded  at  the  summit,  and  sometimes 
almost  filiform. 

This  section  includes  a  great  variety  of  subgenera,  and  includes  the 
Knights,  so  called  by  Linnaeus.  Tliose  with  red  spots  on  the  breast  are  his 
Th-oes  or  Trojans,  and  those  in  which  it  is  wanting,  his  Achivi,  or  Greeks. 
The  genus  PapiUo  of  Linnaeus  is  now  cut  up  into  28  subgenera,  for  the 
details  of  which  see  the  great  edition  of  this  work. 

The  second  section  of  the  Diurnal  Lepidoptera  is  composed  of  species 
in  which  the  posterior  tibiae  have  two  pairs  of  spines,  one  at  their  ex- 
tremity, and  the  other  above?  such  also  is  the  case  in  the  two  following 
families.  The  inferior  wings  are  usually  horizontal  when  at  rest,  and  the 
extremity  of  their  antennx  very  often  forms  a  strongly  hooked  point. 

Their  caterpillars,  of  which  however  but  few  are  yet  known,  bend  leaves 
together,  and  spin  an  extremely  thin  cocoon  of  silk  (in  the  cavity),  in  which 
they  become  chrysaUdes;  the  latter  are  smooth  or  without  angular  eleva- 
tions.   They  compose  two  subgenera: 

Hespeeia,  Fab. 
Or  the  P.  plebei  urbicoks  of  Linnxus,  in  which  the  termination  of  the  an- 
tennae is  distinctly  globuliform  or  clavate,  and  the  inferior  palpi  are  short, 
broad,  and  densely  covered  with  scales  anteriorly;  and  the 

Ukania,  Fab; 
Where  the  antennae,  at  first  filiform,  become  attenuated  or  setaceous  at 
the  extremity,  and  where  the  inferior  palpi  are  elongated  and  slender,  with 
the  second  joint  strongly  compressed,  and  the  last  much  smaller,  almost 
cyluidrical  and  naked. 


FAMILY  II. 

CREPUSCULARIA. 

In  this  family,  near  the  origin  of  the  external  margin  of  their  in- 
ferior wings,  we  observe  a  rigid  squamous  seta,  in  the  form  of  a 
spine  or  bristle,  which  passes  into  a  hook  on  the  under  surface  of 
the  superior  wings,  maintaining  them,  when  at  rest,  in  a  horizontal 
or  inclined  position.  This  character  is  also  visible  in  the  ensuing 
family,  but  the  Crepuscularia  arc  distinguished  from  the  latter  by 
their  antennae,  which  form  an  elongated  club,  either  prismatic  or 
fusiform. 


470  1N8E0TA. 

The  caterpillars  have  always  sixteen  feet.  The  chrysalides  are 
destitute  of  the  points  or  angles  observed  in  most  of  those  of  the  di- 
urnal Lepidoptera,  and  are  usually  enclosed  in  a  cocoon  or  con- 
cealed, either  in  the  earth,  or  under  some  body.  These  Lepidoptera 
frequently  appear  only  in  the  morning  or  evening.  They  compose 
the  genus 

Sphinx,  Lin. 

So  named  from  the  attitude  of  several  of  the  caterpillars,  which  resembles 
that  of  the  fabled  monster  so  called. 

I  will  divide  this  subgenus  into  four  sections.  The  first,  or  that  of  the 
HEsrEni-SpHiNGEs,  consists  of  Lepidoptera,  wliich  evidently  connect  the 
Hespei'iae  with  Sphinx  proper.  The  antennse  are  always  simple,  thickened 
in  the  middle  or  at  the  extremity  which  forms  a  hook,  narrowed  into  a  point 
at  the  end,  and  without  a  tuft  of  scales.  They  all  have  a  veiy  distinct  pro- 
boscis; the  inferior  palpi  are  composed  of  three  very  apparent  joints.  In 
some,  the  second  is  elongated  and  strongly  compressed,  the  third  slender, 
almost  cylindrical  and  nearly  naked;  these  palpi  resemble  those  of  the 
Uranise;  in  others,  they  are  shorter  but  wider,  almost  cylindrical,  and  well 
furnished  with  scales.  The  antennae  of  the  latter  are  only  inflated  at  the 
extremity. 

This  section  ia  composed  o{  ^garista,  Coronis  and  Castnia. 

Those  of  our  second  section,  or  the  Sphingides,  always  have  the  antennae 
terminated  by  ahttle  flake  of  scales;  the  inferior  palpi  broad,  or  compressed 
transversely,  densely  covered  with  scales,  and  the  third  joint  usually  in- 
distinct. 

Most  of  the  caterpillars  have  an  elongated,  smooth  body,  thickest  at  the 
posterior  extremity,  which  is  furnished  with  a  horn,  and  its  sides  striped 
obliquely  or  longitudinally.  They  live  on  leaves,  and  are  metamorphosed 
in  the  earth  without  spinning  a  cocoon. 

SrniNX  proper. 

Where  the  antennae,  commencing  from  the  middle,  form  a  prismatic  club, 
simply  c'diated,  or  transversely  striated  on  one  side  in  the  manner  of  a  rasp . 
They  have  a  very  distinct  proboscis  and  fly  with  great  velocity,  hovering 
over  flowers  with  a  humming  noise.  In  the  chrysalides  of  some  species 
the  sheath  of  the  proboscis  projects  in  the  manner  of  a  snout. 

S.  Mropos,  L.  Superior  wings  variegated  with  deep  and  yellowish- 
brown,  and  light-yellowish;"  inferior  wings  yellow,  with  two  brown  bands; 
a  yellowish  spot  with  two  black  dots  on  the  thorax;  abdomen  yellowish, 
with  black  annuli,  and  without  a  tenninal  brush.  This  is  the  largest 
species  in  France.  The  spot  on  the  thoi*ax  resembhng  a  death's  head, 
and  the  sharp  sound  it  produces  (attributed  by  Reaumur  to  its  rubbing 


LEPIDOPTBBA.  471 

the  palpi  against  its  proboscis)  have  frequently  produced  considerable 
alarm  among  the  people  in  certain  years  when  it  was  unusually  abundant. 

The  caterpillar  is  yellow,  with  blue  stripes  on  the  side,  and  the  tail  re- 
curved and  zig-zag.  It  feeds  on  the  Potato-vine,  Jasmin,  &c.,  and  be- 
comes a  chrysalis  near  the  end  of  August.  The  pei'fect  Insect  appears  in 
September. 

Our  third  division,  that  of  the  Sesiades,  comprises  those  in  which  the  an- 
tennae are  always  simple,  fusiform  and  elongated,  and  frequently  termina- 
ted, as  in  the  preceding  subgenera,  by  a  little  bundle  of  setse  or  scales;  in 
which  the  inferior  palpi,  slender  and  naiTow,  have  three  very  distinct  joints, 
the  last  tapering  to  a  point;  and  where  the  extremity  of  the  posterior  tibiae 
is  armed  with  very  stout  spines.  The  abdomen  in  most  of  them  is  termi- 
nated by  a  sort  of  brush. 

The  caterpillars  feed  on  the  internal  part  of  the  stems  or  roots  of  plants, 
like  those  of  the  Hepiali  and  Cossi,  are  naked,  without  a  posterior  horn, 
and  construct  their  cocoons  in  these  stems  with  the  debris  of  the  substance 
on  which  they  have  fed. 

Sesta. 

Where  the  antennae  are  terminated  by  a  little  tuft  of  scales.  The  wings 
are  horizontal  and  marked  with  transparent  spots.  The  scales  of  the  pos- 
terior extremity  of  the  abdomen  form  a  brush.  S  everal  of  these  Insects  bear 
a  close  resemblance  to  Wasps  or  other  Hymenoptera,  to  Diptera,  &c. 

The  fourth  and  last  section  of  the  Sphinges,  that  of  the  ZTGiEnriDEs, 
is  composed  of  Lepidoptera,  in  which  the  antennae,  always  terminated  in  a 
point  destitute  of  a  tuft,  are  sometimes  simple  in  both  sexes,  fusiform  or 
resembling  a  ram's  horn,  &c.  The  wings  are  almost  tectiform,  and  exhibit 
transparent  spots  in  many.  There  is  no  terminal  brush  to  the  abdomen. 
The  spurs  of  the  posterior  extremity  are  generally  small. 

The  caterpillars  live  exposed  on  various  leguminous  plants.  They  are 
cyUndrical,  usually  pilose,  without  a  posterior  horn,  similar  to  those  of  dif- 
ferent species  of  Bombyx,  and  form  a  fusiform  or  ovoid  cocoon  of  silk, 
which  they  attach  to  the  stems  of  plants. 

ZxGiENA. 

The  Zygaenae  are  not  found  in  the  western  continent.  Their  antennae 
are  simple  in  both  sexes,  and  terminate  abruptly  in  a  fuslfonn  club,  or  one 
resembling  a  ram's  horn;  their  inferior  palpi  extend  beyond  the  clypeus, 
and  are  pointed  at  the  extremity. 


472  INSECT  A. 

FAMILY  III. 

NOCTURNA. 

In  the  third  family  of  the  Lepidoptera,  with  some  few  exceptions, 
we  also  find  the  wings  bridled,  when  at  rest,  by  a  bristle  or  bundle 
of  setae  arising  from  the  exterior  margin  of  the  lower  ones,  and  pass- 
ing into  a  ring  or  groove  in  the  under  part  of  the  upper  ones. 
The  wings  are  horizontal  or  inclined  and  sometimes  rolled  round 
the  body.  The  antennas  gradually  diminish  in  thickness  from  base 
to  point,  or  are  setaceous. 

"This  family,  according  to  the  system  of  Linnaeus,  forms  but  the 
single  genus 

^  Phal^na,  Lin. 

Or  that  of  the  Moths.  These  Lepidoptera  seldom  fly  but  at  night  or  after 
sunset.  Several  have  no  proboscis.  Some  of  the  females  are  destitute  of 
wings,  or  have  but  very  small  ones.  The  caterpillars  most  commonly  spin 
a  cocoon;  the  number  of  their  feet  varies  from  ten  to  sixteen.  The  chry- 
salides are  always  rounded,  or  without  angular  elevations  or  points. 

The  classification  of  tliis  family  is  very  embarrassing,  and  with  respect  to 
it  our  systems  are  as  yet  merely  imperfect  essays  or  rude  sketches.  It  is  now 
divided  into  ten  sections,  each  consisting  of  numerous  genera,  differing  in 
various  details  of  form  and  habits,  both  in  the  larva  or  caterpillar  state,  and 
that  of  the  perfect  Insect.     They  are  all  nocturnal.     These  sections  are 

1.  The  HepiaiiItes.  The  caterpillars  are  rare,  and  remain  concealed  in 
the  heart  of  the  plants  on  which  they  feed;  their  cocoon  is  mostly  formed 
of  particles  of  the  matter  that  nourishes  them.  The  margin  of  the  abdo- 
minal annuli  of  the  chiysalis  is  dentated  or  spinous.  The  antennae  of  the 
perfect  Insect  are  always  short,  and  most  frequently  present  but  one  sort 
of  small,  short,  rounded  and  crowded  teeth.  Those  of  the  four  others  are 
always  terminated  by  a  simple  thread;  but  they  are  furnished  inferiorly  in 
the  males  witli  a  double  hne  of  setae.  The  proboscis  is  always  very  short, 
and  but  slightly  apparent.  The  wings  are  tectifoi-m  and  usually  elongated. 
The  last  abdominal  annuli  of  the  females  form  an  elongated  oviduct  or  sort 
of  tail.  The  caterpillars  of  these  Insects  are  very  injurious  to  several  kinds 
of  trees  and  other  useful  vegetable  productions. 

Here  we  have  Hepialus,  Cossua,  Stygia,  Zeuzera,  &c. 

2.  The  BoM[BTciT£s  are  distinguished  from  those  of  the  preceding  one 


LEPIDOPTERA.  473 

and  the  third,  by  the  following  characters :  the  proboscis  always  very  short, 
and  merely  rudimental;  wings  eitlier  extended  and  horizontal  or  tectiform, 
but  the  lower  ones  extending  laterally  beyond  the  others;  antennae  of  the 
males  entirely  pectinated. 

The  caterpillars  Uve  in  the  open  air,  and  feed  on  the  tender  parts  of  plants. 
Most  of  them  form  a  cocoon  of  pure  silk.  The  margin  of  the  abdominal 
annuli  is  not  dentated  in  the  chrysalis. 

BoMBTX  proper. 

B-moriyL..  Whitish,  with  two  or  three  obscure  and  transverse  streaks;  a 
lunated  spot  on  the  superior  wings. 

The  caterpillar  is  well  known  by  the  name  of  Silk-worm.  It  feeds  on  the 
leaves  of  the  Mulbeny,  and  spins  an  oval  cOcoon  of  a  close  tissue  with  very 
fine  silk,  usually  of  a  yellow  colour,  and  sometimes  white.  A  variety  is 
now  preferred,  which  always  yields  the  latter. 

The  Bombyx  which  produces  it  is  originally  from  the  northern  provinces 
of  Cliina.  According  to  Latreille,  the  city  of  Turfan,  in  Little  Bucharia, 
was  for  a  long  time  the  rendezvous  of  the  western  caravans,  and  the  chief 
entrepot  of  the  Chinese  silks.  It  was  the  metropolis  of  the  Seres  of  Upper 
Asia,  or  of  the  Serica  of  Ptolemy.  Driven  from  their  country  by  the  Huns, 
the  Seres  established  themselves  in  Great  Bucharia  and  in  India.  It  was 
from  one  of  their  colonies,  Ser-hend  (Ser-indi),  that  Greek  missionaries,  in 
the  reign  of  Justinian,  carried  the  eggs  of  the  silk-worm  to  Constantinople. 
At  the  period  of  the  first  crusades,  tlae  cultivation  of  silk  was  introduced 
into  the  kingdom  of  Naples  from  the  Morea,  and  several  centuries  after- 
wards, under  the  administration  of  Sully  particularly,  into  France.  It  is 
well  known  that  silk  was  formerly  sold  for  its  weight  in  gold,  and  that  it 
is  now  a  source  of  great  wealth  to  France. 

3.  The  PsEUDo-BoMBicES,  are  composed  of  Lepidoptera,  in  which,  as 
well  as  in  the  following  ones,  the  inferior  wings  are  furnished  with  a  bridle 
which  fixes  them  to  the  superior,  when  at  rest.  They  are  then  entirely 
covered  by  the  latter,  both  being  tectiform  or  horizontal,  but  with  the  inner 
margin  overlapped.  The  proboscis,  towards  the  latter  end  of  the  tribe, 
begins  to  lengthen,  and,  in  the  last  subgenera,  even  scarcely  differs  from 
that  of  other  Lepidoptera,  except  in  being  somewhat  shorter.  The  anten- 
nae are  entirely  pectinated  or  serrated,  at  least  in  the  males.  All  their 
caterpillars  live  on  the  exterior  parts  of  plants. 

There  are  eight  subgenera,  Sericaria,  Notodonta,  Orgyia,  &c. 

4.  The  Aposuha  are  removed,  as  we  have  observed  in  the  general 
divisions  of  this  family,  by  a  unique  character,  viz.  tlie  absence  of  the  anal 
feet  of  the  animal  in  its  larva  state.  The  posterior  extremity  of  the  body 
terminates  in  a  point,  which  in  several  is  forked,  or  even  presents  two  long, 
articulated,  and  movable  appendages,  forming  a  sort  of  tail.     Witli  respect 

3  K 


474  INSECTA. 

to  their  proboscis,  palpi,  and  antennx,  these  Insects  are  but  slightly  re- 
moved from  the  preceding-  ones, 

5.  The  NocTuajLiTEs,  Lat.,  are  similar  to  the  preceding  Insects  in  the 
figure  and  relative  size  of  the  wings,  and  in  their  position  when  at  rest,  but 
present  the  two  following  distinguishing  characters:  a  horny,  and  most 
commonly  long,  spirally  rolled  proboscis;  inferior  palpi  abruptly  terminated 
by  a  very  small  or  much  more  slender  joint  than  the  preceding  one;  the 
latter  much  wider,  and  strongly  compressed. 

The  body  of  the  Noctuselites  is  more  covered  with  scales  than  with  a 
woolly  down.  Their  antennae  are  usually  simple.  The  back  of  the  thorax 
is  frequently  tufted,  and  the  abdomen  forms  an  elongated  cone;  they  fly 
with  great  rapidity.     Some  of  them  appear  during  the  day. 

Their  caterpillars  usually  have  sixteen  feet;  the  others  have  two  or  four 
less,  but  the  two  posterior,  or  anals,  are  never  absent,  and  in  those  which 
present  but  twelve,  the  anterior  pair  of  the  membranous  ones  are  as  large 
as  the  next.  Most  of  these  caterpillars  enclose  themselves  in  a  cocoon  to 
complete  their  metamorphosis. 

Here  we  have  Erebus  and  Nodua. 

6.  The  Phai;enje  Tortrices,  L.,  are  closely  allied  to  the  two  preceding 
sections.  The  superior  wings,  of  which  the  exterior  margin  is  arcuated  at 
base  and  then  narrowed,  their  short  and  wide  figure  forming  a  truncated 
oval,  give  a  very  peculiar  appearance  to  these  Insects.  They  have  a  dis- 
tinct proboscis,  and  their  inferior  palpi  are  usually  almost  similar  to  those 
of  the  Noctuse,  but  somewhat  salient. 

They  are  small  and  prettily  coloured;  their  wings  are  tectiform,  but  flat- 
tened almost  horizontally,  and  always  laid  on  the  body.  In  this  case  the 
upper  ones  are  slightly  crossed  along  the  inner  mai'gin. 

Their  caterpillars  have  sixteen  feet,  and  their  body  is  closely  shorn  or 
but  slightly  pilose.  They  twist  and  roll  up  leaves  of  trees,  connecting 
various  points  of  their  surface  at  different  times  by  layers  of  silken  threads 
running  in  one  direction,  and  thus  form  a  tube  in  which  they  reside,  and 
feed  in  tranquillity  on  their  parenchyma.  Others  form  a  nest  by  connecting 
several  leaves  or  flowers  with  silk.     Some  of  them  inhabit  fruits. 

The  posterior  extremity  of  the  body  is  narrow  in  several.  Their  cocoon 
has  the  figure  of  a  bateau,  and  is  sometimes  of  pure  silk,  and  at  others 
mixed  with  foreign  matters . 

The  Tortrices  compose  the  subgenus  PxRAtis,  Fab. 

7.  The  Geometry  comprise  Lepidoptera  in  which  the  body  is  usually 
slender,  the  proboscis  either  nearly  wanting,  or  generally  but  slightly 
elongated,  and  almost  membranous.  The  inferior  palpi  are  small,  and  al- 
most cylindrical.  The  wings  are  ample,  extended,  or  tectiform  and  flat- 
tened.    The  antenns  of  several  males  are  pectinated.    Th  e  thorax  is  always 


LEPIDOPTERA.  475 

smooth-  The  caterpillars  usually  have  but  ten  feet;  the  others  present 
two  more,  and  those  at  the  extremity  always  exist.  Their  peculiar  mode 
of  progression  has  caused  them  to  be  styled  Geometras,  or  Measurers. 
When  about  to  advance,  they  first  cling-  with  their  anterior  or  squamous 
feet,  then  elevate  their  body  so  as  to  form  a  ring,  in  order  to  approximate 
the  posterior  extremity  of  tlie  body  to  the  anterior,  or  that  which  is  fixed; 
they  cling-  with  the  last  feet,  disengage  the  first,  and  move  the  body  for- 
wards, when  they  recommence  the  same  operation.  Their  attitude  when  at 
rest  is  singular.  Fixed  to  a  branch  of  some  plant  by  the  last  feet  only,  their 
body  remains  extended  in  a  straight  line  in  the  air,  and  absolutely  motion- 
less. So  closely  does  the  skin  resemble  the  branch  in  its  coloui'  and  ine- 
qualities, that  it  is  easy  to  confound  them.  In  this  way  and  at  an  angle  of 
forty- five  degrees,  or  more,  with  the  hmb  to  which  they  are  attached,  these 
animals  remain  for  hours  and  even  days. 

The  chrysalides  are  almost  naked,  or  their  cocoon  is  extremely  thin,  and 
poorly  furnished  with  silk. 

This  section,  exclusive  of  the  caterpillars,  contains  but  one  subgenus,  or 
Phaljena  proper. 

8.  The  Deltoides,  Lat,  consist  of  species  very  analogous  to  true  Pha- 
Ixnae,  but  whose  caterpillars  have  fourteen  legs,  and  roll  up  leaves.  In  the 
perfect  Insect  the  Inferior  palpi  are  elongated  and  recurved.  Its  wings 
and  body,  on  the  sides  of  which  the  former  are  extended  horizontally, 
form  a  sort  of  delta,  marked  by  a  re-entering  angle  In  the  posterior  side,  or 
appearing  to  be  forked.     The  antennae  are  usually  pectinated  or  ciliated. 

The  Deltoides  form  the  subgenus  Hebminia,  Lat. 

9.  The  TiNEiTEs  comprise  the  smallest  species  of  this  order.  Their 
caterpillars  are  always  closely  shorn,  furnished  with  sixteen  feet  at  least, 
and  rectigrade,  living  concealed  in  dwelhngs  fabricated  by  themselves,  either 
fixed  or  movable.  Here  the  wings  form  a  sort  of  elongated  and  almost 
flattened  triangle,  terminated  by  a  re-entering  angle;  such  are  the  Pyra- 
lides  of  Linnaeus;  they  have  four  distinct  and  usually  exposed  palpi.  There, 
the  superior  wings  are  long  and  narrow,  sometimes  moulded  on  the  body, 
and  forming  a  sort  of  rounded  roof  to  It,  sometimes  almost  perpendicularly 
decumbent  and  laid  on  the  sides,  and  frequently  raised  or  ascending  pos- 
teriorly like  the  tail  of  a  cock.  In  both  cases  the  inferior  wings  are  always 
wide  and  plaited.  These  species  also  frequently  have  the  four  palpi  ex- 
posed. 

All  the  caterpillars,  whose  habitations  (sheaths)  are  fixed  or  immovable, 
are  the  Pseudo-Tinem  of  Reaumur;  those  which  construct  portable  ones, 
which  they  transport  with  them,  are  true  Tinese. 

The  substances  on  which  they  feed,  or  on  which  they  reside,  furnish  the 
materials  of  the  structure. 

Of  those  sheaths  which  are  composed  of  vegetable  matters,  many  are 
very  singular.     Some,  like  those  of  the  Adelse,  are  covered  exteriorly  with 


476  INSECTA. 

portions  of  leaves  laid  one  over  the  other,  and  forming  a  sort  of  flounce; 
others  are  in  the  form  of  a  bat,  and  sometimes  dentated  along  one  of  their 
sides.  The  material  of  some  of  them  is  diaphanous,  and  as  if  cellular  or 
divided  by  scales. 

The  caterpillars  of  the  true  Tines,  commonly  called  Moths,  clothe  them- 
selves with  particles  of  woollen  stuffs,  which  they  cut  with  their  jaws  and 
on  which  they  feed,  hairs  of  furs,  and  those  of  the  skins  of  animals  in  zoolo- 
gical collections,  united  by  silk.  They  know  how  to  lengthen  their  sheath, 
or  to  increase  its  diameter  by  slitting  it  and  adding  a  new  piece-  In  these 
tubes  they  undergo  their  metamorphosis,  after  closing  the  orifices  with  silk. 

The  Pseudo-Tinese  content  themselves  with  mining  the  interior  of  the 
vegetable  and  animal  substances  on  which  they  feed,  and  forming  simple 
galleries,  or  if  they  construct  sheaths  either  with  those  matters  or  silk,  they 
are  always  fixed,  and  are  mere  places  of  retreat. 

These  caterpillars,  which  perforate  in  various  directions  the  parenchyma 
of  the  leaves  on  which  they  feed,  have  been  called  Miners.  They  produce 
those  desiccated  spaces  in  the  form  of  spots  and  undulating  lines,  frequently 
observed  on  leaves.  Buds,  fruits,  and  seeds  of  plants,  fi'equently  those  of 
wheat,  and  even  the  resinous  galls  of  certain  Coniferse,  serve  for  aliment 
and  habitations  to  others.  These  Insects  are  frequently  ornamented  with 
the  most  brilliant  colours.  In  several  species  the  superior  wings  are  deco- 
rated with  golden  or  silver  spots,  sometimes  even  in  relief. 

Aglossa,  Lat. 

Where  the  four  palpi  are  exposed,  and  the  wings  form  a  flattened  triangle; 
there  is  no  emargination  in  the  extremity  of  the  upper  one . 

d.  pinguinalis.  Superior  wings  agate-grey,  with  blackish  stripes  and 
spots.     Found  in  houses  on  the  walls. 

Its  caterpillar  is  naked,  blackish-brown,  glossy,  and  feeds  on  fatty  or  bu, 
tyraceous  substances.  Reaumur  called  it  the  Fausseteigne-des  cuirs,  be- 
cause it  also  feeds  on  leather  and  the  covers  of  books.  It  constructs  a  tube 
which  it  places  against  the  body  on  which  it  feeds,  and  covers  it  with  gra- 
nules. 

Galleria,  Fab. 

Where  the  scales  of  the  clypeus  form  a  projection  that  covers  the  palpi; 
and  the  superior  wings,  proportionally  narrower  than  in  Aglossa,  and  emargin- 
ated  in  the  posterior  edge,  are,  as  well  as  the  inferior  ones,  strongly  inclined 
and  turned  up  posteriorly  like  the  tail  of  a  cock,  as  in  many  species  of  the 
following  subgenera. 

O.  cereana,  Fab.  About  five  lines  in  lengthy  cinereous;  head  and  thorax 
paler,  and  little  brown  spots  along  the  internal  margin  of  the  superior  wings. 

Reaumur  designates  its  caterpillar  by  the  name  of  fausse-teigne  de  la  cire. 
It  ravages  hives  by  penetrating  into  the  combs,  constructing,  as  it  pro. 
gresses,  a  silken  tube  covered  with  granules,  which  are  formed  of  the  wax 


LEPIDOPTERA.  4t7 

on  which  it  feeds.     The  cocoons  of  their  chrysalides  are  sometimes  found 
collected  in  piles. 

Tinea. 

Where  the  proboscis  is  very  short  and  formed  of  two  little  membranous 
and  separated  threads.     The  head  is  crested. 

p.  tapezana.  Fab.  Upper  wings  black;  their  posterior  extremity,  as  well 
as  the  head,  white. 

The  caterpillar  attacks  cloth  and  other  woollen  stuffs,  on  which  it  lies 
concealed  in  a  semi-tubular  sheath  fonned  of  their  particles,  which  it 
lengthens  as  it  advances. 

T.  pellionella,  Fab.  Upper  wings  silver  grey,  with  one  or  two  black  dots 
on  each.  The  caterpillar  inhabits  a  felted  tube  on  furs;  it  cuts  the  hairs  at 
base  and  rapidly  destroys  them.     The 

T.  Jlavifrontella,  I'ab.,  ravages  cabinets  of  natural  history  in  the  same  way. 

T.  granella.  Fab.  Its  upper  wings  are  marbled  with  grey,  brown  and 
black,  and  turned  up  posteriorly.  The  caterpillar — fausse-teigne  des  bles — 
connects  several  grains  of  wheat  with  silk,  and  forms  a  tube  from  which  it 
occasionally  issues  to  feed  upon  those  seeds.     It  is  very  noxious. 

10.  The  FissiPBNWffi  are  closely  related  to  the  preceding  Insects,  so  far 
as  relates  to  the  narrow  and  elongated  form  of  the  body  and  upper  wings, 
but  are  removed  from  them,  as  well  as  from  all  others  of  this  order,  by  the 
four  wings,  or  at  least  two,  being  spUt  longitudinally  in  the  manner  of 
branches  or  fingers  with  fringed  edges,  and  resembling  feathers.  The 
wings  resemble  those  of  Bii'ds.     They  constitute  the  subgenus 

Ptebophohtts. 
The  caterpillars  have  sixteen  feet,  and  live  on  leaves  or  flowers  without 
constructing  a  tube. 


ORDER  XI. 
RHIPIPTERA. 

This  order  was  established  by  M.  Kirby  under  the  name  of  Sire- 
siptera  (twisted  wings),  on  certain  Insects  remarkable  for  their 
anomalous  form  and  irregular  habits. 

From  the  two  sides  of  the  anterior  extremity  of  the  trunk,  near 
the  neck  and  the  exterior  base  of  the  two  first  legs,  are  inserted  two 
small,  crustaceous,  movable  bodies,  in  the  form  of  little  elytra,  di- 
rected backwards,  that  are  narrow,  elongated,  clavate,  curved  at 


478  INSECTA. 

the  extremity,  and  terminate  at  the  origin  of  the  wings.  As  elytra, 
properly  so  called,  always  cover  the  whole  or  the  base  of  the  latter 
organs  and  arise  from  the  second  segment  of  the  trunk,  these  bodies 
are  not  true  wing-cases,  but  parts  analogous  to  those  (pterygoda) 
we  have  already  observed  at  the  base  of  the  wings  in  the  Lepidop- 
tera.  The  wings  of  the  Rhipiptera  are  large,  membranous,  divided 
by  longitudinal  and  radiating  nervures,  and  fold  longitudinally  in  the 
manner  of  a  fan.  The  mouth  consists  of  four  pieces,  two  of  which, 
the  shortest,  appear  to  be  so  many  biarticulated  palpi;  the  others 
inserted  near  the  internal  base  of  the  preceding  ones,  resemble  little 
linear  laminae,  which  are  pointed  and  crossed  at  their  extremity  like 
the  mandibles  of  various  Insects;  they  bear  a  greater  similitude  to 
the  lancets  of  the  sucker  of  the  Diptera  than  to  true  mandibles. 
The  head  is  also  furnished  with  two  large  hemispherical,  slightly 
pediculated,  and  granular  eyes;  two  almost  filiform  and  short  an- 
tennas, approximated  at  base  on  a  common  elevation,  consisting  of 
three  joints,  the  two  first  of  which  are  very  short,  and  the  third  very 
long,  and  divided  down  to  its  origin  into  two  long,  compressed,  lan- 
ceolate branches,  laid  one  against  the  other.  The  ocelli  are  want- 
ing. The  form  and  divisions  of  the  trunk  are  very  similar  to  those 
of  several  Cicadariae,  Psyllae,  and  Chrysides.  The  abdomen  is 
almost  cylindrical,  consists  of  eight  or  nine  segments,  and  is  termi- 
nated by  pieces  also  analogous  to  those  observed  at  the  extremity 
of  the  above  mentioned  Hemiptera. 

These  Insects,  in  their  larvae  state,  live  between  the  abdominal 
scales  of  several  species  of  Andrenae  and  Wasps  of  the  subgenus 
Polistes.  They  frisk  about  with  a  simultaneous  motion  of  the  wings 
and  halteres.  Although  they  appear  to  be  removed  in  several  res- 
pects from  the  Hymenoptera,  I  still  think  it  is  to  some  of  those  In- 
sects, such  as  the  Eulophi,  that  they  are  most  nearly  allied. 

M.  Peck  has  observed  one  of  the  larvae — Xenos  PecTcii — which 
is  found  on  Wasps.  It  forms  an  oblong  oval,  is  destitute  of  feet,  and 
is  annulated  or  plaited;  the  anterior  extremity  is  dilated  in  the  form 
of  a  head,  and  the  mouth  consists  of  three  tubercles.  These  larvje 
become  nymphs  in  the  same  place,  and,  as  it  appeared  to  me,  when 
examining  the  nymphs  of  the  Xenos  Rossi,  another  Insect  of  the 
same  order,  within  their  own  skin,  and  without  changing  their  form. 

Nature  has  perhaps  furnished  the  Rhipiptera  with  the  two  false 
elytra  of  which  we  have  spoken,  to  enable  them  to  disengage  them- 


RHIPIPTERA.  479 

selves  from  between  the  abdominal  scales  of  the  Insects  on  which 
they  have  lived.  They  are  a  sort  of  CEstri  to  Insects,  and  we  shall 
soon  find  a  species  of  Conops  that  undergoes  its  metamorphosis  in 
the  abdomen  of  the  Bombi.     The  Rhipiptera  form  two  genera. 

Stylops,  Kirb. 
The  first  one  observed  and  Instituted  by  M.  Kirby.     The  superior  branch 
of  the  last  segment  of  the  antennae  is  composed  of  three  little  joints.     The 
abdomen  is  retractile  and  fleshy. 

But  a  single  species  is  known;  it  lives  on  the  Andrenjc. 

Xenos,  Ross. 
Here  the  two  branches  of  the  antennx    are  inarticulated.      The  abdo- 
men,  with  the  exception  of  the  anus,  which  is  fleshy  and  retractile,  is  cor- 
neous. 

Two  species  of  this  genus  are  known,  one  of  which  lives  on  the  Wasp 
called  gallica,  and  the  other  on  an  analogous  "Wasp  of  North  America,  the 
Foliates fucaiUj  Fab. 


ORDER  XII. 
DIPTERA(l). 

The  distinguishing  characters  of  dipterous  Insects  consist  in  six 
feet;  two  membranous,  extended  wings,  with,  almost  always,  two 
movable  bodies  above  them  called  halteres ;  a  sucker  composed  of 
squamous,  setaceous  pieces,  varying  in  number  from  two  to  six,  and 
either  enclosed  in  the  superior  groove  of  a  probosciform  sheath  ter- 
minated by  two  lips,  or  covered  by  one  or  two  inarticulated  laminae 
which  form  a  sheath  for  it. 

Their  body,  like  that  of  other  hexapoda,  is  composed  of  three 
principal  parts.  The  number  of  ocelli,  when  any  are  present,  is 
always  three.  The  antennas  are  usually  inserted  on  the  front  and 
approximated  at  base;  those  of  the  Diptera  of  our  first  family  resem- 
ble those  of  the  nocturnal  Lepidoptera  in  form  and  composition,  and 
frequently  in  their  appendages,  but  in  the  following  and  greater 
number  of  families  they  consist  of  but  two  or  three  joints,  the  last 

(1)  Two  winged. 


480  INSECTA. 

of  which  is  fusiform  or  shaped  like  a  lenticular  or  prismatic  palette, 
furnished  either  with  a  Httle  styliform  appendage,  or  a  thick  hair  or 
seta,  sometimes  simple  and  sometimes  hairy.  Their  mouth  is  only 
adapted  for  extracting  and  transmitting  fluids.  When  these  nutri- 
tive substances  are  contained  in  particular  vessels  with  permeable 
parietes,  the  appendages  of  the  sucker  act  as  lancets,  pierce  the 
envelope,  and  open  a  passage  to  the  fluid,  which,  by  their  pressure, 
is  forced  to  ascend  the  internal  canal  to  the  pharynx,  situated  at  the 
base  of  the  sucker.  Tiie  sheath  of  the  latter,  or  the  external  part 
of  the  proboscis,  merely  serves  to  maintain  the  lancets  in  situ,  and 
when  they  are  to  be  employed  it  is  bent  back.  The  base  of  the 
proboscis  frequently  bears  two  filiform  or  clavate  palpi,  composed, 
in  some,  of  five  joints,  but  in  the  greater  number  of  one  or  two. 
The  wings  are  simply  veined,  and  most  frequently  horizontal. 

The  use  of  the  halteres  is  not  yet  well  known^  the  Insect  moves 
them  very  rapidly.  In  many  species,  those  of  the  last  families  par- 
ticularly, and  above  the  halteres,  are  two  membranous  appendages 
resembling  the  valves  of  a  shell,  and  connected  by  one  of  their  sides, 
called  [ailerons  or  cuillerons)  alulae.  One  of  these  pieces  is  united 
to  the  wing  and  participates  in  all  its  motions,  but  then  the  two  parts 
are  nearly  in  the  same  plane.  The  size  of  these  alulae  is  in  an  in- 
verse ratio  to  that  of  the  halteres.  The  prothorax  is  always  very 
short,  and  frequently  we  can  merely  discover  its  lateral  portions. 

The  abdomen  is  frequently  attached  to  the  thorax  by  a  portion 
only  of  its  transversal  diameter.  It  is  composed  of  from  five  to  nine 
apparent  annuli,  and  usually  terminates  in  a  point  in  the  females;  in 
those  where  the  number  of  annuli  is  less,  the  last  ones  frequently 
form  a  sort  of  ovipositor  presenting  a  succession  of  little  tubes  slid- 
ing into  each  other  like  the  joints  of  a  spy-glass.  Their  usually 
long  and  slender  legs  are  terminated  by  a  tarsus  of  five  joints,  the 
last  of  which  has  two  hooks,  and  very  often  two  or  three  vesicular 
or  membranous  pellets. 

Many  of  these  Insects  are  noxious  both  by  sucking  our  blood 
and  that  of  our  domestic  animals,  by  depositing  their  eggs  on 
their  body  in  order  that  their  larvae  may  feed  on  them,  and  by  infect- 
ing our  preserved  meats  and  cerealia.  Others  in  return  are  highly 
useful  to  us  by  devouring  noxious  Insects,  and  consuming  dead  bo- 
dies and  animal  substances  left  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  that  poi- 
son the  air  we  breathe,  and  by  accelerating  the  dissipation  of 
stagnant  and  putrid  water. 


DIPTERA.  481 

The  term  of  life  assigned  to  the  perfect  Aptera  is'very  short. 
They  all  undergo  a  perfect  metamorphosis,  modified  in  two  princi- 
pal ways.  Tiie  larvce  of  several  change  tlieir  skin  to  become 
nymphs.  Some  even  spin  a  cocoon,  but  others  never  change  tiieir 
tegument,  which  becomes  sufficiently  solid  to  form  a  case  for  the 
nymph,  resembling  a  seed  or  an  egg.  The  body  of  the  larva  is  first 
detached  from  it,  leaving  on  its  internal  parietes  the  external  organs 
peculiar  to  it,  such  as  the  hooks  of  the  mouth,  &,c.  It  soon  as- 
sumes the  form  of  a  soft  or  gelatinous  mass,  on  which  none  of  the 
parts  that  characterize  the  perfect  Insect  can  be  seen.  After  the 
lapse  of  a  few  days,  those  organs  become  defined  and  the  Insect  is 
a  true  nymph.  It  extricates  itself  from  confinement  by  separating 
the  anterior  extremity  of  its  case  which  comes  off  like  a  cap. 

The  larvas  of  the  Diptera  are  destitute  of  feet,  though  appendages 
that  resemble  them  are  observable  in  some.  This  order  of  Insects 
is  the  only  one  in  which  we  find  larvae  with  a  soft  and  variable  head. 
This  character  is  almost  exclusively  peculiar  to  the  larvas  of  those 
which  are  metamorphosed  under  their  skin.  Their  mouth  is  usually 
furnished  with  two  hooks  that  enable  them  to  stir  up  alimentary 
substances.  The  principal  orifices  of  respiration,  in  most  of  the 
larvae  of  the  same  order,  are  situated  at  the  posterior  extremity  of 
their  body.  Several  of  them,  besides,  present  two  stigmata  on  the 
first  ring,  that  which  immediately  follows  the  head  or  replaces  it. 

We  will  divide  the  Diptera  into  two  principal  sections.  In  those 
which  compose  the  first,  the  head  is  always  distinct  from  the  thorax, 
the  sucker  is  enclosed  in  a  sheath,  and  the  hooks  of  the  tarsi  are 
simple  or  dentated.  The  metamorphosis  of  the  larvae  into  nymphs 
is  always  afl^ected  after  they  have  left  the  mother.  In  the  first  sub- 
division we  find  Diptera  whose  antennas  are  multi-articulated. 

FAMILY  I. 

NEMOCERA. 

In  this  family  the  antennae  usually  consist  of  from  fourteen  to  six- 
teen joints,  and  from  six,  or  nine,  to  twelve,  in  the  others.  They  are 
either  filiform  or  setaceous,  frequently  hairy,  particularly  in  the 
males,  and  much  longer  than  the  head.  The  body  is  elongated, 
the  head  small  and  rounded,  the  eyes  large,  the  proboscis  sahent, 
3  L 


482  INSECTA. 

and  either  short  and  terminated  by  two  large  lips,  or  prolonged  into  a 
siphon-like  rostrum,  with  two  exterior  palpi  inserted  at  its  base, 
usually  jSliform  or  setaceous  and  composed  of  four  or  five  joints. 
The  thorax  is  thick  and  elevated;  the  wings  are  oblong;  the  halteres 
are  entirely  exposed  and  apparently  unaccompanied  with  alulae. 
The  abdomen  is  elongated,  and  most  commonly  formed  of  nine  an- 
nuli;  it  terminates  in  a  point  in  the  female,  but  is  thicker  at  the  end 
and  furnished  with  hooks  in  the  males.  The  legs  are  very  long  and 
slender,  and  are  frequently  used  by  these  Insects  to  balance  them- 
selves. Several,  particularly  the  smaller  ones,  collect  in  the  air  in 
numerous  swarms,  and,  as  they  flit  about,  form  a  sort  of  dance. 
They  are  found  at  almost  every  season  of  the  year.  Some  of  the 
females  commit  their  ova  to  the  water;  others  deposit  them  in  the 
earth  or  on  plants. 

The  larvae,  always  elongated  and  resembling  worms,  have  a  squa- 
mous head,  always  of  the  same  shape,  the  mouth  of  which  is  fur- 
nished with  parts  analogous  to  maxillas  and  lips.  They  always 
change  their  skin  to  become  nymphs.  The  latter,  sometimes  naked, 
and  sometimes  enclosed  in  cocoons  constructed  by  the  larvae,  ap- 
proximate in  their  figure  to  the  perfect  Insect,  present  their  external 
organs,  and  complete  their  metamorphosis  in  the  usual  manner. 
They  have  frequently,  near  the  head  or  on  the  thorax,  two  organs 
of  respiration  resembling  tubes.  This  family  is  composed  of  the 
genera  Culex  and  Tipula  of  Linnaeus. 

Some,  in  which  the  antennae  are  always  filiform,  as  long  as  the 
thorax,  densely  pilose,  and  composed  of  fourteen  joints,  have  along, 
projecting,  filiform  proboscis,  containing  a  piercing  sucker  consist- 
ing, of  five  setae.     They  constitute  the  genus 

Culex,  Lin. 
Or  the  Mosquetoes,  where  the  body  and  legs  are  elongated  and  hairy;  the 
antennse  densely  pilose,  the  hairs  forming  tufts  in  the  males;  the  eyes  large 
and  closely  approximated  or  convergent  at  their  posterior  extremity;  the 
palpi  projecting,  filiform,  hairy,  as  long  as  the  proboscis,  and  composed  of 
five  joints  in  the  males,  shorter  and  apparently  with  fewer  articulations  in 
tlie  females.  The  proboscis  is  composed  of  a  membranous,  cylindrical 
tube,  terminated  by  two  lips  forming  a  little  button  or  inflation,  and  of  a 
sucker  consisting  of  five  squamous  threads  which  produces  the  effect  of  a 
sting.  The  wings  are  laid  horizontally,  one  over  the  other,  on  the  body, 
with  little  scales. 

The  torment  we  experience  from  these  Insects,  particularly  in  the  vicinity 


DIPTERA.  483 

of  low  grounds  and  water,  where  they  are  most  abundant,  is  well  known. 
These  Insects  also  feed  on  the  nectar  of  flowers. 

The  female  deposits  her  eggs  on  the  surface  of  the  watei',  and  places  them 
side  by  side  in  a  perpendicular  direction;  the  entire  mass  resembles  a  little 
bateau  floating  on  that  element.  Each  female  lays  about  three  hundred 
eg-gs  in  the  course  of  the  year.  These  Insects  frequently  survive  the  most 
intense  cold.  Their  larvse  swarm  in  the  green  and  stagnant  waters  of  ponds 
and  ditches,  particularly  in  spring,  the  period  at  which  those  females  lay 
their  eggs  who  have  passed  through  the  winter.  They  suspend  themselves 
on  the  surface  of  the  water  in  order  to  respire,  with  their  head  downwards. 
These  larvas  are  very  lively,  swim  with  considerable  velocity,  and  dive  from 
time  to  time,  but  soon  return  to  the  surface.  After  some  changes  of  tegu- 
ment, they  then  become  nymphs,  which  still  continue  to  move  by  means 
of  their  tail  and  its  two  terminal  fins.  These  nymphs  also  remain  on  the 
surface  of  the  water,  but  in  a  different  position  from  that  of  the  larvx,  their 
respiratory  organs  being  placed  on  the  thorax;  they  consist  of  two'  tubular 
horns.  It  is  in  the  water  also  that  the  perfect  Insect  is  developed.  Its 
exuvix  form  a  sort  of  float  or  resting  place,  which  keeps  it  from  submer- 
sion. All  these  metamorphoses  occur  in  the  space  of  three  or  four  weeks, 
and  several  generations  are  produced  in  the  course  of  the  year. 

In  the  other  Nemocera,  the  proboscis  is  either  very  short  and 
terminated  by  two  large  lips,  or  in  the  form  of  a  siphon  or  rostrum, 
but  directed  perpendicularly  or  curved  on  the  pectus.  The  palpi 
are  bent  underneath,  or  turned  up,  but  in  that  case,  from  one  to 
two  joints  only. 

Linnaeus  comprises  them  in  his  genus 

TiPULA. 

"Which  is  now  variously  divided  and  subdivided.     It  includes  the  various 
species  of  the  Crane-fly. 

All  the  following  Diptera,  a  small  number  excepted,  have  their 
antennas  composed  of  three  joints,  the  first  of  which  is  so  short,  that 
it  may  be  excluded  from  thesupputation;  the  last  isannulated  trans- 
versely, but  without  distinct  divisions.  It  is  frequently  accompanied 
with  a  seta,  usually  lateral,  and  sitUated  on  the  summit  in  others 
presenting  two  joints  at  base,  sometimes  simple  and  sometimes  silky 
The  palpi  never  have  more  than  two  joints. 

Some,  a  few  excepted,  whose  larvae  divest  themselves  of  their 
skin  previous  to  becoming  pupae,  always  have  a  sucker  composed 
of  six  or  four  pieces;  the  proboscis,  or  at  least  its  extremity,  that  is 
to  say,  its  lips,  is  always  salient.     The  palpi,  when  they  exist,  are 


481  INSECTA. 

exterior,  and  inserted  near  the  margin  of  the  oral  cavity,  close  to 
which  arises  the  sucker. 

The  larvae,  even  of  those  in  which  the  skin  forms  a  cocoon  for 
the  pupa  (Stratiomis)^  retain  their  primitive  form. 

This  subdivision  will  comprise  three  families. 


FAMILY  II. 

TANYSTOMA.(l) 

The  Diptera  of  this  family  are  distinguished  from  those  of  the  two 
following  ones  by  the  last  joint  of  the  antennas,  which,  exclusive  of 
the  seta  .which  may  terminate  it,  presents  no  transverse  division;  the 
sucker  is  composed  of  four  pieces. 

Their  larvae  resemble  long  and  almost  cylindrical  worms,  with  a 
constant  and  squamous  head,  always  provided  with  hooks  or  retrac- 
tile appendages,  by  which  they  are  enabled  to  gnaw  or  suck  the 
alimentary  matters  on  which  they  feed.  They  change  their  skin  to 
undergo  their  second  metamorphosis.  The  nymphs  are  naked,  and 
exhibit  several  of  the  external  parts  of  the  perfect  Insect,  which  is- 
sues from  its  exuvias,  through  a  slit  in  the  back. 

In  our  first  division  we  find  species  whose  proboscis,  always  en- 
tirely (or  nearly)  salient,  with  the  exterior  envelope  or  the  sheath 
of  the  sucker  solid  or  almost  corneous,  projects  more  or  less  in  the 
form  of  a  tube  or  siphon,  sometimes  cylindrical  or  conical,  and 
sometimes  filiform,  and  terminates  without  any  remarkable  enlarge- 
ment, the  lips  being  small  or  confounded  with  the  sheath.  The 
palpi  are  small. 

Some,  that  are  rapacious,  have  an  oblong  body,  the  thorax  nar- 
rowed before,  and  the  wings  incumbent;  their  proboscis  is  most 
commonly  short  or  but  slightly  elongated,  and  forms  a  sort  of  ros- 
trum. The  antennae  are  always  approximated,  and  the  palpi  ap- 
parent. 

AsiLTTs,  Lin. 
Where  the  proboscis  is  directed  forwards.     They  fly  with  a  humming 
noise,  are  carnivorous,  voracious,  and  according  to  their  size  and  power, 
seize  on  Flies,  Tipulse,  Bombi  or  Coleopterae,  which  they  then  exhaust  by 


(1)  Long'-mouthed. 


DIPTERA.  485 

suction.  Their  larvae  have  a  small  squamous  head,  anned  with  two  mova- 
ble hooks,  live  in  the  earth,  and  there  become  nymphs,  whose  thorax  is 
furnished  with  dentated  hooks,  and  the  abdomen  with  small  spines. 

Empis,  Lin. 
Closely  allied  to  Asilus  in  the  form  of  the  body  and  the  position  of  the 
wing's,  but  with  the  proboscis  perpendicular  or  directed  backwards.     The 
head  is  rounded  and  almost  globular;  the  eyes  very  large. 

These  Insects  are  small  and  live  on  prey  and  tlie  nectar  of  flowers.  The 
last  joint  of  their  antennze  is  always  terminated  by  a  biarticulated  or  short 
stilet,  or  by  a  seta. 

The  remaining  Tanystoma  of  our  first  division  usually  have  a  short,  wide 
body,  the  head  apphed  directly  to  the  thorax,  the  wings  distant  and  the 
abdomen  triangular.  In  a  word,  their  general  appearance  is  that  of  our 
domestic  Fly.     Their  proboscis  is  frequently  long. 

CvRTUs,  Lat. 

Intermediate  between  Empis  and  Bombylius.  The  wingS  are  Inclined  on 
each  side  of  the  body;  and  the  alulse  very  large  and  covering  the  halteres; 
the  head  is  small  and  globular,  the  thorax  very  high  or  gibbous,  the  abdo- 
men  vesicular  and  rounded,  or  almost  cubical;  the  antennae  are  closely  ap- 
proximated, and  the  proboscis  is  directed  backwards  or  wanting'. 

Bombylius,  Lin. — Bombyliers,  Lat. 
Where  the  wings  are  extended  horizontally  on  each  side  of  the  body,  and 
the  halteres  are  exposed.  The  thorax  is  higher  than  the  head,  or  gibbous 
as  in  Cyrtus;  the  antennae  are  closely  approximated,  and  the  abdomen  is 
triangular  or  conical;  the  proboscis  is  directed  forwards.  The  proboscis  is 
generally  very  long  and  most  slender  at  the  extremity.  Their  legsare  long" 
and  attenuated.  They  fly  with  great  velocity,  hover  over  flowers  without 
alighting  on  them,  introduce  their  trunk  into  their  calyx  to  obtain  their 
nectar,  and  produce  a  sharp  humming  sound. 

Anthrax,  Scop.  Fab. 
Similar  to  Bombylius;  but  where  the  body  is  depressed,  or  but  slightly  ele- 
vated and  not  gibbous,  with  the  head  as  high  and  as  broad  as  itself  The 
antennae  are  always  short,  and  distinct  from  each  other,  and  always  termin- 
ated by  a  subulate  or  punch-like  joint.  The  proboscis,  except  in  a  small 
number,  is  generally  short,  extending  but  little  beyond  the  head,  frequently 
even  withdrawn  into  its  oral  cavity,  and  terminated  by  a  little  inflation 
formed  by  the  lips.  The  palpi  are  usually  concealed,  small,  fiUform,  and 
each,  at  least  in  several,  adhering  to  one  of  the  threads  of  the  sucker.  The 
abdomen  is  less  triangular  than  that  of  the  Bombylii,  and  partly  square. 
These  Insects  are  generally  hairy.     Their  habits  are  very  analogous  to 


486  INSECTA. 

those  last  mentioned.    They  frequently  alight  on  the  ground,  on  walls  ex- 
posed to  the  sun,  and  on  leaves. 

Our  second  general  division  of  the  Tanystoma  is  characterized  by 
a  membranous  proboscis,  usually  with  a  short  stem,  projecting  but 
slightly  and  terminated  by  two  very  distinct  and  raised  or  ascending 
lips. 

The  form  of  the  head  in  the  larva)  of  the  last  Diptera  of  this  divi- 
sion is  variable. 

In  some — Lcptides—ihe  wings  are  distant  and  exhibit  several 
complete  cells.  The  antennas  arc  not  terminated  en  palette.  The 
palpi  are  filiform  or  conical. 

Sometimes  these  palpi  are  withdrawn  into  the  oral  cavity.  The 
antennas  have  a  fusiform  termination  or  one  resembling  an  elongated 
cone,  with  a  little  articulated  stilet  at  the  end. 

Thereva,  Lat. 
T.pleheia.    Black,  with  cinereous  hairs;  abdominal  annuU  margined  with 
white.     On  plants. 

Sometimes  the  palpi  are  exterior.  The  last  joint  of  the  antennae 
is  either  almost  globular  or  reniform,or  nearly  ovoid  or  conical,  and 
terminated  by  a  long  seta. 

The  tarsi  are  furnished  with  three  pellets.     They  form  the  genus 

Leptis. 
Which  is  divided  into  several  subgenera.    We  may  notice  the 

L.  vermilco.  llesembling  a  Tipula;  yellow;  four  black  streaks  on  the 
thorax;  the  abdomen  elongated,  with  five  ranges  of  black  spots;  wings  im- 
maculate. 

The  larva  is  almost  cylindrical;  its  anterior  portion  is  much  the  smallest, 
and  there  are  four  mandibles  on  the  opposite  extremity.  It  resembles  a 
stick-like  geometra  (caterpillar),  and  is  equally  rigid  when  withdrawn  from 
its  domicil.  It  bends  its  body  in  every  direction,  advances  and  moves  about 
in  the  sand,  and  excavates  there  an  infundibuliform  cavity,  at  the  bottom  of 
which  it  secretes  itself  either  entirely  or  partially.  If  an  Insect  be  preci- 
pitated into  the  trap  it  rises  .suddenlj',  clasps  it  with  its  body,  pierces  it  with 
the  stings  or  hooks  of  its  head,  and  sucks  it.  It  flings  away  the  carcass  as 
well  as  the  sand,  by  bending  its  body,  and  then  suddenly  relaxing  it,  like  a 
bow. 

The  pupa  is  covered  with  a  layer  of  sand. 

The  other  Tanyetoma  of  our  second  division  have  their  wings  in- 


DIPTERA.  487 

cumbent  on  the  body.  The  antennae  terminate  in  a  palette,  almost 
always  accompanied  by  a  seta.  The  palpi  of  the  greater  number 
are  flattened  or  laminiform,  and  laid  on  the  proboscis. 

These  characters,  a  body  compressed  on  the  sides,  a  triangular 
head,  slightly  projecting  in  the  manner  of  a  snout,  the  abdomen 
curved  underneath,  and  long  slender  legs  furnished  with  little  spines, 
particularly  distinguish  the  genus 

DoLicuopus,  Lat.  Fab. 
Which  now  forms  a  small  tribe.     These  Insects  are  frequently  green  or 
cupreous.     The  legs  are  long-  and  very  slender.     They  are  found  on  walls, 
trunks  of  trees,  &c.     Some  of  them  ruii  along  the  suiface  of  the  water 
with  great  celerity. 

FAMILY  III. 

TABANIDES. 

Our  third  family  of  the  Diptera  is  characterized  by  a  salient  pro- 
boscis, usually  terminated  by  two  lips  with  projecting  palpi,  by  the 
last  joint  of  the  antennae  being  annulated,  and  by  a  sucker  composed 
of  six  pieces:  it  comprises  the  genus 

Tabanus,  Lin. 
Or  the  Horse-flies.  These  Diptera  are  very  similar  to  large  Flies,  and  well 
known  by  the  torment  they  occasion  to  cattle,  by  piercing  their  skin  in 
order  to  suck  their  blood.  Their  body  is  usually  but  slightly  pilose. 
Their  head  is  as  wide  as  the  thorax,  almost  hemispherical,  and  with  the 
exception  of  a  small  space,  particularly  in  the  males,  occupied  by  two  eyes, 
generally  of  a  golden-green,  with  purple  spots  or  streaks.  Their  antennae 
are  about  the  length  of  the  head,  and  are  composed  of  three  joints,  the 
last  of  which  is  the  longest,  terminates  in  a  point,  has  neither  seta  nor  stilet 
at  the  end,  is  frequently  lunate  above  its  base,  and  with  from  three  to  seven 
transverse  and  superficial  divisions.  The  proboscis  of  the  greater  number 
is  almost  membranous,  perpendicular,  of  the  length  of  the  head  or  some 
what  shorter,  almost  cylindrical,  and  terminated  by  two  elongated  lips. 
The  two  palpi,  usually  incumbent  on  it,  are  thick,  pilose,  conical, 
compressed  and  biarticulated.  The  sucker  inclosed  in  the  proboscis  is 
composed  of  six  small  pieces,  in  the  form  of  lancets,  which,  by  their  num- 
ber and  relative  situation,  correspond  to  the  parts  of  the  mouth  in  the  Co- 
leoptera.  The  wings  are  extended  horizontally  on  each  side  of  the  body. 
The  alulae  almost  completely  cover  the  halteres.  The  abdomen  is  triangu- 
lar and  depressed.     The  tarsi  are  furnished  with  three  pellets. 


488  INSECTA. 

These  Insects  begin  to  appear  towards  the  close  of  spring,  are  very  com- 
mon in.  the  woods  and  pastures,  and  produce  a  humming  noise  when  on  the 
wing.  They  even  pursue  Man  in  order  to  suck  liis  blood.  Beasts  of  bur- 
den, having  no  means  of  repulsing  them,  are  most  exposed  to  their  attacks, 
and  are  sometimes  seen  covered  with  blood  from  the  wounds  they  inflict. 
The  Insect  mentioned  by  Bruce,  under  the  name  of  Tsaltsalya,  which  is 
dreaded  even  by  the  Lion,  may  possibly  belong  to  this  genus. 

T.  bovinus,  L.  An  inch  long;  body  brown  above,  grey  beneath;  eyes 
green;  tibix  yellow;  transverse  lines  and  triangular  spots  of  pale  yellow  on 
the  abdomen;  wings  transparent,  with  russet-brown  nervui-es. 

The  larva  lives  in  the  ground.  It  is  elongated,  cylindrical,  and  attenua- 
ted towards  the  head,  which  is  armed  with  two  hooks.  The  nymph  is 
naked,  and  ascends  to  the  surface  of  the  soil  when  about  to  divest  itself  of 
its  skin,  in  order  to  assume  the  form  of  a  Tabanus,  and  protrudes  the  half 
of  its  body  above  it. 


FAMILY  IV. 

NOTACANTHA.(l) 

The  fourth  family  of  the  Diptera,  as  well  as  the  preceding  one, 
presents  antennae  of  which  the  third  and  last  joint  is  divided  trans- 
versely in  the  manner  of  a  ring,  or  which  are  even  composed  of  five 
very  distinct  joints;  but  the  sucker  is  formed  of  only  four  pieces, 
and  the  proboscis,  the  stem  of  which  is  usually  very  short,  is  almost 
entirely  retracted  within  the  oral  cavity.  The  membranous  nature 
of  that  organ  and  its  turned  up  lips,  its  similarly  raised  and  clavate 
palpi,  the  relative  disposition  of  the  wings  which  are  usually  crossed, 
the  form  of  the  abdomen  which  is  rather  oval  or  orbicular  than  tri- 
angular, and  finally  the  scutellum  which  is  frequently  armed  with 
teeth  or  spines,  also  distinguish  the  Notacantha  from  the  Tabanides. 

But  few  of  their  larvae  have  been  observed.  Such  as  have  been 
discovered  are  described  and  figured  by  Swammerdam,  Reaumer 
and  Roesel,  are  aquatic,  and  approximate  to  those  of  the  Athericera 
in  their  soft  head,  varying  in  form,  and  in  their  habit  of  becoming 
pupae  under  their  own  skin;  but  they  retain  their  primitive  form  and 
proportions,  thus  differing  from  those  of  the  latter. 

Other  larvae  of  the  Notacantha — Xylophagus — live  in  the  carious 
and  diseased  parts  of  trees. 


1)  Spiny-backed. 


DIPTERA.  489 

We  divide  the  Notacantha  into  three  principal  sections. 

Those  of  the  first — BIydasii,  Lat. — never  have  teeth  or  spines 
in  the  scutellura.  Their  body  is  oblong,  and  the  abdomen  forms  an 
elongated  and  conical  triangle.  The  wings  are  distant.  Their  an- 
tennae, from  which  we  draw  their  most  distinguishing  character,  are 
sometimes  composed  of  five  distinct  joints,  the  two  last  of  which  form 
a  club  in  some,  and  the  extremity  of  a  cyhndrical  stem  with  a  subu- 
late termination  in  others,  and  sometimes  of  three  joints,  the  last  of 
which  is  largest,  almost  cylindrical,  tapers  to  a  point  and  is  divided 
into  three  annulij  thus  these  organs  are  always  divided  into  five. 

In  some  the  antenna3  are  much  longer  than  the  head,  consist  of 
five  joints,  are  terminated  in  an  elongated  club  formed  by  the  two 
last,  with  an  umbilicus  at  the  end  from  which  issues  a  very  short 
seta.  The  posterior  thighs  are  stout,  and  dentated  or  spinous  on 
the  inner  side.  The  tarsi  have  but  two  pellets.  The  posterior  cells 
of  the  wings  are  complete  or  closed  before  the  margin,  or  narrow 
or  elongated,  oblique  or  transverse. 

These  Insects  compose  the  genus 

Mydas, 

Which  is  divided  into  two  subgenera.  CErHALOCEBA,  Lat.,  where  the 
proboscis  is  in  the  form  of  a  long  and  projecting  siphon,  and  Mxdas,  Fab. 
or  Mydas  proper,  where  that  organ,  as  is  usual  in  this  family,  terminates  by 
two  large  lips. 

In  the  others,  the  antennae  are  scarcely  longer  than  the  head,  cy- 
lindrical, and  tapering  to  a  point  at  their  extremity.  The  tarsi  are 
furnished  with  three  pellets.  The  posterior  cells  of  the  wings  are 
longitudinal  and  closed  by  their  posterior  margin. 

Chiromyza,  Wied. 
Where  the  antennx  are  composed  of  five  well  separated  joints,  the  two 
l»st  of  which  are  the  smallest. 

Pachystomus,  Lat. 
Where  the  antennae  are  composed  of  three  joints,  the  last  of  which  is  divided 
into  as  many  rings. 

In  the  second  section,  that  of  the  Decatoma^  Lat.,  we  find  anten- 
nae always  composed  of  three  joints,  the  last  of  which,  the  longest, 
without  stilet  or  seta,  and  divided  into  eight  rings,  is  clavate  in 

3  M 


490  INSECTA, 

some,  and  almost  cylindrical  or  in  the  form  of  an  elongated  cone  in 
the  others.  The  wings  are  usually  incumbent  on  the  body.  The 
tarsi  are  furnished  with  three  pellets. 

These  Insects  may  be  united  in  one  generic  section. 

Xylophagtjs. 
In  Xylophagus  proper,  the  body  is  narrow  and  elongated,  and  the  antennse 
are  evidently  somewhat  longer  than  the  head,  and  terminated  by  an  almost 
cylindrical  joint.    The  head  is  short,  transversal,  and  without  any  particular 
elevation  anteriorly. 

In  the  third  section — Stratiomydes,  Lat., — we  also  find  antennae 
consisting  of  three  joints,  the  last  of  which,  exclusive  of  thestilet  or 
seta,  presents  at  most  five  or  six  rings.  This  stilet,  or  that  seta, 
exists  in  almost  all  of  them,  and  in  those  where  they  are  wanting, 
the  third  joint  is  elongated  and  fusiform,  and  always  divided  into  five 
or  six  rings.  The  wings  are  always  incumbent  one  on  the  other. 
In  several  of  those  species  where  the  antennae  terminate  in  a  some- 
what oval  and  globular  club,  and  always  furnished  with  a  stilet  or  a 
seta,  the  •scutellum  is  not  spinous. 

This  section  comprises  the  genus 

Stratiomts,  Geoff. 
In  Stratiomys,  properly  so  called,  the  antennse  are  much  longer  than  the 
head,  the  first  and  last  joint  being  greatly  elongated;  the  latter  is  fusiform, 
or  resembles  a  narrow  and  elongated  club,  narrowed  at  both  ends,  consist- 
ing of  at  least  five  distinct  rings,  witliout  an  abrupt  stilet  at  the  extremity. 
The  two  rings  that  compose  it  are  not  distinguished  from  the  others  by  any 
sudden  contraction. 

The  body  of  the  larvse  is  long,  flattened,  invested  by  a  coriaceous  or  firm 
skin  and  divided  into  annuli,  of  which  the  three  last  form  a  tail  terminated 
by  numerous  plumose  hairs  which  radiate  from  the  extremity.  They  in- 
habit water. 

Our  second  general  division  of  the  Diptera,  which  are  provided 
with  a  sucker  enclosed  in  a  sheath,  and  whose  antennas  consist  of 
but  three  or  two  joints,  comprises  those  whose  proboscis,  usually 
bilabiate,  long,  geniculate,  and  bearing  the  palpi  a  little  above  the 
elbow,  is  most  commonly  entirely  contained  in  the  oral  cavity,  and 
when  always  salient,  has  a  sucker  composed  of  only  two  pieces. 
The  last  joint  of  the  antennas,  always  accompanied  by  a  stilet  or  seta, 


DIPTERA.  491 

never  exhibits  annular  divisions.     The  palpi,  when  at  rest,  are  con- 
cealed. 


FAMILY  V. 

ATHERICERA. 

Here  the  proboscis  is  usually  terminated  by  two  large  lips.  The 
sucker  is  never  composed  of  more  than  four  pieces,  and  frequently 
presents  but  two. 

The  larvffi  have  a  very  soft,  extremely  contractile,  annulated  body, 
narrowest  and  most  pointed  anteriorly.  The  head  varies  as  to 
figure,  and  its  external  organs  consist  of  one  or  two  hooks,  accom- 
panied in  some  genera  by  mammillae,  and  probably  in  all  by  a  sort 
of  tongue  destined  to  receive  the  nutritious  juices  on  which  they 
feed.  They  usually  have  four  stigmata,  two  situated  on  the  first 
ring,  one  on  each  side,  and  the  two  others  on  as  many  circular, 
squamous  plates,  at  the  posterior  extremity  of  the  body.  It  has 
been  observed  that  these  latter,  at  least  in  several,  were  formed  of 
three  smaller  and  closely  approximated  stigmata.  The  larva  has 
the  faculty  of  enveloping  these  parts  with  the  marginal  skin,  which 
forms  a  sort  of  purse.  They  never  change  their  skin.  That  which 
invests  them  when  first  hatched  becomes  indurated,  and  thus  forms 
a  sort  of  cocoon  for  the  pupa.  It  becomes  shortened,  assumes  an 
ovoidal  or  globular  figure,  and  the  anterior  portion,  which  in  the 
larva  was  the  narrowest,  increases  in  diameter,  oris  sometimes  even 
thicker  than  the  opposite  extretnity.  Traces  of  the  annuli,  and 
frequently  vestiges  of  the  stigmata  are  observed  on  it,  although  the 
latter  no  longer  serve  for  respiration.  The  body  is  gradually  de- 
tached from  the  skin  or  cocoon,  assumes  the  figure  of  an  elongated 
and  extremely  soft  ball,  on  which  none  of  its  parts  are  perceptible, 
and  soon  passes  into  the  state  of  a  pupa.  The  Insect  issues  from 
its  shell,  by  removing  with  its  head  the  anterior  extremity,  which  flies 
offlike  a  cap,  that  part  of  the  cocoon  being  so  disposed  as  to  facili- 
tate this  result. 

But  few  of  the  Athericera  are  carnivorouB  in  their  perfect  state. 

They  are  generally  found  on  trees,  leaves  and  flowers. 

Their  proboscis  is  always  long,  membranous,  geniculate  near  the 
base,  terminated  by  two  large  lips,  and  encloses  the  sucker  in  a  su- 


492  INSECTA. 

perior  groove-  The  upper  piece  of  this  sucker,  which  is  inserted 
near  the  elbow,  is  brocid,  arched  and  emarginated  at  its  extremity; 
the  three  others  are  linear  and  pointed,  or  setaceous;  to  each  of  the 
two  lateral  ones,  representing  the  maxillas,  is  annexed  a  little  mem- 
branous, narrow  palpus,  slightly  widened  and  rounded  at  the  end; 
the  inferior  seta  is  analogous  to  the  ligula.  The  head  is  hemis- 
pherical, and  mostly  occupied  by  the  eyes,  that  of  the  males  parti- 
cularly. Its  anterior  extremity  is  frequently  prolonged  in  the  man- 
ner of  a  snout  or  rostrum,  receiving  the  proboscis  underneath  when 
it  is  doubled.  Several  species  resemble  Bombi  and  other  Wasps. 
This  tribe  will  comprise  but  the  single  genus 

Syephus. 

In  Syrphus,  properly  so  called,  the  abdomen  is  gradually  narrowed  from 
base  to  point. 

The  larvae  feed  exclusively  on  Aphides  of  all  kinds,  frequently  holding 
them  in  the  ah",  and  soon  exhausting  them  by  suction.  Their  body  forms 
a  sort  of  elongated  cone,  and  is  veiy  uneven,  or  even  spinous.  When 
about  to  become  pupse,  they  fix  themselves  to  leaves,  &c.  with  a  kind  of 
glue.  The  body  is  shortened,  and  its  anterior  portion,  which  was  pre- 
viously the  most  slender,  then  becomes  the  thickest. 

The  sucker  of  all  the  remaining  Athericera  consist  of  but  two 
setse,  the  superior  representing  the  labrum,  and  the  inferior  the 
ligula. 

They  form  three  other  small  tribes  which  will  correspond  to  the 
genera  CEstrus  and  Conoj)s  of  Linnseus,  and  to  the  Musca,  Fab.  as 
originally  composed. 

We  will  begin  with  (he  tribe  of  the  CEstrides  consisting  of  the 
genus 

CEsTHus,  Lin. 
Which  is  very  distinct,  as  in  place  of  the  mouth  we  find  but  three  tubercles, 
or  slight  rudiments  of  the  proboscis  and  palpi. 

These  Insects  resemble  large  and  densely  pilose  Flies,  and  their  hairs  are 
frequently  coloured  in  bands  hke  those  of  the  Bombi.  Their  antennae  are 
very  short;  each  is  inserted  in  a  fossula  over  the  front,  and  terminated  by 
a  rounded  palette  with  a  simple  seta  on  the  back  near  its  origin.  Their 
wings  arc  usually  remote;  the  alulse  are  large  and  conceal  the  halteres. 
The  tarsi  are  terminated  by  two  hooks  and  two  pellets. 

These  Insects  are  rarely  found  in  their  perfect  state,  the  time  of  their 
appearance  and  the  localities  they  inhabit  being  very  limited.     As  they 


DIPTERA.  493 

deposit  their  eggs  on  the  body  of  various  herbivorous  quadrupeds,  it  is  in 
woods  and  pastures  that  we  must  look  for  them.  Each  species  of  CEstnis 
is  usually  a  parasite  of  one  same  species  of  some  mammiferous  animal,  and 
selects  for  the  location  of  its  eggs  the  only  part  of  its  body  that  is  suitable 
for  its  larvae,  whether  they  are  to  remain  tliere,  or  pass  from  thence  to  the 
spot  suited  for  their  development.  The  Ox,  Horse,  Ass,  Rein-deer,  Stag, 
Antelope,  Camel,  Sheep  and  Hare  ai-e  tlie  only  quadrupeds  yet  known, 
•which  are  subject  to  be  inhabited  by  the  larvae  of  the  CEstri.  They  seem 
to  have  an  extraordinary  di-ead  of  the  Insect  when  it  is  buzzing  about  them 
for  the  purpose  of  depositing  its  egg^. 

The  domicil  of  the  larvae  is  of  three  kinds;  we  may  distingush  them  by 
the  names  of  cutaneous,  cervical,  and  gastric,  as  some  live  in  the  lumps  or 
tumours  formed  on  the  skin,  others  in  some  part  of  the  interior  of  the  head, 
and  the  rest  in  the  stomach  of  the  animal  destined  to  support  them. 

CE.  bovis,  De  Geer.  From  six  to  seven  lines  in  length,  and  densely  pi- 
lose; thorax  yellow,  with  a  black  band;  abdomen  wliite  at  base,  with  a  ful- 
vous extremity;  wings  somewhat  obscure. 

The  female  deposits  her  eggs  under  the  hide  of  healthy  Oxen  and  Cows, 
of  not  more  than  two  or  three  years  of  age.  The  consequence  of  this  ope- 
ration are  tumours  or  lumps,  on  the  internal  pus  of  wliich  the  larvae  feed. 
Horses  also  are  subject  to  them. 

The  Rein-Deer,  Antelope,  Hare,  &c.,  also  nourish  various  larvae  of  CEstri, 
but  of  a  different  species. 

CE.  ovis,  L.  Five  lines  in  length,  and  but  slightly  pilose;  head  greyish; 
thorax  cinereous,  with  elevated  black  points;  abdomen  yellowish,  finely 
spotted  with  brown  or  black;  legs  pale-brown;  wings  transparent.  The 
larva  inhabits  the  frontal  sinus  of  the  Sheep.  That  of  the  species  called 
trompe.  Fab.,  is  found  in  the  same  parts  in  the  Rein-Deer. 

CE.  equi,  Lat.;  Clarck.  But  slightly  pUose,  and  of  a  fulvous  brown;  ab- 
domen paler;  two  points  and  a  band  on  the  wings,  black.  The  female  de- 
posits her  ova  on  the  legs  and  shoulders  of  Horses;  the  larvae  inhabit  their 
stomach. 

The  third  tribe  of  the  Athericera,  that  of  the  CoNopsARiiE,  is  the 
only  one  of  that  family  in  which  the  proboscis  is  either  always  sali- 
ent and  siphoniform,  cylindrical  or  conical,  or  setaceous.  The  re- 
ticulation of  the  wings  is  the  same  as  in  our  first  division  of  the 
Muscides. 

Most  of  these  Insects  are  found  on  plants.     They  form  the  genus 

CoNOPs,  Lin. 

In  Conops,  properly  so  called,  the  two  last  joints  of  the  antennsc  formed  a 
club,  with  a  terminal  stilet. 

C.  rufipes;  Fab.  Black;  abdominal  annuli  edged  with  white;  base  of  the 
abdomen  and  legs  fulvous;  edge  of  the  wings  black. 


494  INSECTA. 

It  undergoes  its  metamorphosis  in  the  abdomen  of  a  living  Bombus,  and 
issues  from  between  its  rings. 

Our  fourth  and  last  tribe,  that  of  the  Muscides,  is  distinguished 
from  the  three  preceding  ones  by  a  very  apparent,  always  membra- 
nous and  bilabiate  proboscis,  usually  bearing  two  palpi  (the  Phorae 
alone  excepted),  susceptible  of  being  entirely  retracted  within  the 
oral  cavity;  and  by  a  sucker  composed  of  two  pieces.  The  antennae 
always  terminate  en  palette  with  a  lateral  seta. 

This  tribe  will  comprise  the  genus 

MuscA,  Lin. 

Or  that  of  the  Flies.  Antennse  inserted  near  the  front,  palpi  placed  on  the 
proboscis,  and  retiring  with  it  into  the  oral  cavity,  and  transverse  nervures 
in  tlie  wings,  characterize  a  first  section  of  the  Muscides,  which  will  in- 
chide  eight  principal  groups  or  sub-tribes. 

Tbese  groups  are  composed  of  various  subgenera — we  will  merely  parti- 
cularize that  of 

Musca,  properly  so  called,  or  the  true  Fly,  where  the  abdomen  is  trian- 
gular, and  the  eyes  are  contiguous  postei'iorly,  or  closely  approximated  in 
the  males. 

Here  come  most  of  those  Flies  whose  larv2e  feed  on  carrion,  meat,  &c. ; 
others  of  the  same  subgenus  inhabit  dung.  They  all  resemble  soft,  whitish 
worms  without  feet,  thickest  and  truncated  at  the  posterior  extremity,  and 
becoming  gradually  smaller  towards  the  opposite  one,  which  terminates  in 
a  point  furnished  with  two  hooks,  with  which  they  divide  their  aliment,  and 
accelerate  its  decomposition.  The  metamorphosis  of  these  Insects  is  effect- 
ed in  a  few  days.  The  posterior  extremit}'  of  the  abdomen  of  the  females 
is  narrowed  and  prolonged  in  the  manner  of  a  tube  or  ovipositor,  by  which 
she  can  insert  her  eggs. 

M  vomitoria,  L.  A  large  species;  front  fulvous;  thorax  black;  abdomen 
glossy-blue  with  black  streaks. 

This  Insect  enjoys  the  sense  of  smell  to  a  high  degree,  announces  its 
presence  in  our  dwellings  by  a  loud  humming,  and  deposits  its  ova  on  meat. 
Deceived  by  the  cadaverous  odour  arising  from  the  Arum  dracuncvdus,  L. 
when  in  flower,  it  also  leaves  its  eggs  there.  When  the  larva  is  about  to 
become  a  pupa,  it  abandons  the  putrescent  matters  in  which  it  has  lived, 
which  might  then  prove  injurious  to  it,  and  penetates,  if  possible,  into  the 
earth,  or  is  metamorphosed  in  some  dry  and  retired  spot. 

M.  csesar,  L.  Body,  a  glossy  golden-green;  legs  black.  The  female  de- 
posits her  eggs  on  carrion. 

M.  domestica,  h.  The  thorax  of  the  Common  Fly  is  of  a  cinerous-grey 
with  four  black  streaks;  abdomen  blackish-brown  spotted  with  black,  and 
yellowish-brown  above. 


DIPTERA.  495 

In  the  Diptera  of  which  we  have  hitherto  spoken,  we  have  found 
a  sucker  received  into  the  superior  canal  of  a  tubular  sheath,  more 
or  less  membranous,  geniculate  at  base,  most  frequently  terminated 
by  two  lips,  and  accompanied  by  palpi.  The  antennae,  except  one 
subgenus  or  Phora,  have  always  appeared  to  be  inserted  near  the 
front.  The  larvae  of  these  Diptera,  although  susceptible  of  being 
hatched  in  the  venter  of  the  mother,  live  abroad  and  feed  on  various 
substances,  vegetable  or  animal.  These  Insects  have  formed  our 
first  general  section,  which  is  divided  into  five  families.  Those  of 
the  second  differ  in  all  these  respects. 

This  second  section  will  form  our  last  family  of  the  Diptera. 

FAMILY  VI. 

PUPIPARA.(l) 

These  insects,  at  least  the  Hippoboscae,  were  distinguished  by 
Reaumur,  under  the  analogous  appellation  o^  Nymphipara. 

Their  head,  viewed  from  above,  is  divided  into  two  distinct  areae 
or  parts.  One  posterior,  and  more  particularly  composing  the  head, 
gives  origin  to  the  eyes  and  receives  the  other  part  in  an  anterior 
emargination.  The  latter  is  also  divided  into  two  portions,  the 
posterior  large  and  coriaceous,  bearing  the  antennae  on  its  sides, 
and  the  other  constituting  the  apparatus  of  manducation.  The  in- 
ferior and  oral  cavity  of  the  head  is  occupied  by  a  membrane;  from 
its  extremity  issues  a  sucker  arising  from  a  little  bulb  or  projecting 
pedicle,  composed  of  two  closely  approximated  threads  or  se(£e,  and 
covered  by  two  coriaceous,  narrow,  elongated,  and  pilose  laminae 
which  form  its  sheath. 

The  body  is  short,  tolerably  broad,  flattened  and  defended  by  a 
solid  skin  almost  of  the  consistence  of  leather.  The  head  is  more 
intimately  united  to  the  thorax  than  in  the  preceding  families.  The 
antennae,  always  situated  at  the  lateral  and  anterior  extremities  of 
the  head,  sometimes  form  a  tubercle  bearing  three  setae,  and  some- 
times little  hairy  laminae.  The  eyes  vary  as  tosize;  in  some  species 
they  are  very  small. 


(1)  Bom  in  the  pupa  state. 


496  INSECTA. 

The  thorax  presents  four  stigmata,  two  anterior  and  two  poste- 
rior. 

The  wings  are  always  distant  and  accon)panied  by  halteres. 
Their  edge  is  more  or  less  fringed  with  cilia.  The  skin  of  the  ab- 
domen is  formed  of  a  continuous  membrane,  so  that  this  part  of  the 
body  is  susceptible  of  being  distended  and  of  acquiring  a  conside- 
rable volume,  as  necessarily  happens  in  those  female  Hippoboscae, 
where  the  larvas  are  hatched  and  continue  to  reside  until  the  period  of 
their  transformation  into  pupae.  At  this  epoch  the  larvae  are  pro- 
duced in  the  form  of  a  soft,  white  egg^  almost  as  bulky  as  the  ma- 
ternal abdomen;  the  skin  hardens  and  becomes  a  firm  shell,  at  first 
brown,  then  black,  round,  and  frequently  emarginated  at  one  end, 
and  presenting  a  glossy  plate  or  operculum  which  is  finally  detached 
in  the  manner  of  a  cap  to  allow  the  egress  of  the  perfect  Insect. 

These  Insects,  which  have  been  called  by  some  authors  Mouches- 
Araignees^  live  exclusively  on  Quadrupeds  or  Birds,  run  very  fast, 
and  frequently  sideways. 

Some — Coriaces^  Lat. — have  a  very  distinct  head  articulated 
with  the  anterior  extremity  of  the  thorax.     They  form  the  genus 

HiPPOBoscA,  Lin.  Fab. 
The  Hippobosca  proper  is  furnished  with  wings;  and  has  very  distinct  eyes 
occupying  all  the  sides  of  the  head;  antennse  in  the  form  of  tubercles, 
with  three  setsc  on  the  back. 

H.  equina,  L.  Brown  mixed  with  yellowish.  Found  on  Horses  and 
Oxen,  usually  under  their  tail. 

There  are  other  subgenera. 

The  head  of  the  other  Pupipara — Phtkiromyies,  Lat. — is  very 
small  or  almost  wanting.  It  forms  a  minute,  vertical  body  near  the 
anterior  and  dorsal  extremity  of  the  thorax. 

They  constitute  the  genus 

NycTEKiBiA,  Lat. 
These  Insects  have  neither  wings  nor  halteres,  and  resemble  Spiders  still 
more  than  the  preceding  ones.    They  live  on  Bats.    Linnxus  arranged  one 
species,  and  the  only  one  he  knew,  with  the  Pediculi. 


497 


FOURTH  GREAT  DIVISION  OF  THE  ANIMAL 
KINGDOM. 


ANIMALIA  RADIATA. 


The  Radiated  Animals,  or  Zoophytes,  as  they  are  termed, 
include  a  number  of  beings  whose  organization,  always  evidently 
more  simple  than  that  of  the  three  preceding  divisions,  also  presents 
a  greater  variety  of  degrees  than  is  observed  in  either  of  them,  and 
seems  to  agree  in  but  one  point,  viz.  their  parts  are  arranged  round 
an  axis  and  on  one  or  several  radii,  or  on  one  or  several  lines  ex- 
tending from  one  pole  to  the  other.  Even  the  Entozoa  or  Intestinal 
Worms  have  at  least  two  tendinous  lines,  or  two  nervous  threads 
proceeding  from  a  collar  round  the  mouth,  and  several  of  them  have 
four  suckers  situated  round  a  probosciform  elevation.  In  a  word, 
notwithstanding  some  irregularities,  and  some  very  few  exceptions — 
those  of  the  Planaria  and  most  of  the  Infusoria — traces  of  the  radi- 
ating form  are  always  to  be  found,  which  are  strongly  marked  in  the 
greater  number,  and  particularly  in  Asterias,  Echinus,  the  Acale- 
pha,  and  the  innumerable  host  of  the  Polypi. 

The  nervous  system  is  never  very  evident,  and  when  traces  of  it 
have  been  apparently  visible,  it  was  also  arranged  in  radii;  most 
frequently,  however,  there  is  no  appearance  of  it  whatever. 

There  is  never  any  true  circulating  system.  The  Holothuria  are 
provided  with  a  double  vascular  apparatus,  one  portion  of  it  being 
attached  to  the  intestines  and  corresponding  to  the  organs  of  respi- 
ration, and  the  other  merely  serving  to  inflate  the  organs  which 
3  N 


498  ANIMALIA   RADIATA. 

supply  the  want  of  feet.  In  the  great  number  of  Zoophytes  it  is 
easily  proved  that  there  are  no  vessels  whatever. 

In  some  genera,  such  as  Holothuria,  Ursinus,  and  in  several  of 
the  Entozoa,  we  observe  a  mouth  and  a  distinct  intestinal  canal. 
Others  have  an  intestinal  sac,  but  with  a  single  opening.  In  the 
greater  number  there  is  merely  a  cavity  excavated  in  the  substance 
of  the  body  which  sometimes  opens  by  several  suckers;  and  finally 
there  are  some  in  which  there  is  no  mouth  visible,  and  which  can 
only  be  nourished  by  porous  absorption. 

The  sexes  of  several  of  the  Entozoa  or  Intestinal  Worms  can  be 
distinguished.  The  greater  number  of  the  other  Radiata  are  ovi- 
parous; some  are  reproduced  by  buds  or  division. 

The  compound  animals,  of  which  we  have  already  seen  some  ex- 
amples in  the  last  of  the  Mollusca,  are  greatly  multiplied  in  certain 
orders  of  the  Radiata,  and  their  aggregation  produces  trunks  and 
expansions  forming  all  sorts  of  figures.  It  is  to  this  circumstance, 
together  with  the  simple  nature  of  the  organization  in  most  of  the 
species,  and  the  radiating  disposition  of  their  organs,  which  reminds 
us  of  the  petals  of  flowers,  that  they  owe  their  name  of  Zoophytes 
or  Animal-plants,  by  which  we  merely  mean  to  express  this  appa- 
rent affinity,  for  as  Zoophytes  enjoy  the  sense  of  touch  and  the  power 
of  voluntary  motion,  mostly  feed  on  matters  which  they  have  swal- 
lowed or  sucked,  and  digest  them  in  an  internal  cavity,  they  are  cer- 
tainly animals  in  every  point  of  view. 

In  Asterias  and  Ursinus,  called  Echinodermes  by  Brugiere  on 
account  of  their  spines,  we  find  a  distinct  intestine  floating  in  a  large 
cavity,  and  accompanied  by  other  organs,  for  respiration,  &c.,  and 
a  partial  circulation. 

The  Entozoa  or  Intestinal  Worms,  which  form  the  second  class, 
have  no  very  evident  vessels  in  which  a  distinct  circulation  is  car- 
ried on,  nor  separate  organs  of  respiration.  Their  body  is  usually 
elongated  or  depressed,  and  their  organs  arranged  longitudinally. 

The  third  class  comprises  the  Acalepha  or  Sea  Nettles.  They 
have  neither  true  circulating  vessels  nor  organs  of  respiration. 
Their  form  is  usually  circular  and  radiating,  and  their  mouth  is  al- 
most always  their  only  aperture.  They  only  differ  from  Polypi  in 
the  greater  development  of  the  tissue  of  their  organs.  The  Aca- 
lepha Hydrostatica,  which  we  place  at  the  end  of  this  class,  when 


ANIMALIA   RADIATA.  499 

better  known,  will  perhaps  form  a  separate  one;  as  yet  however  we 
only  conjecture  the  functions  of  their  singular  organs. 

The  Polypi,  which  compose  the  fourth  class,  are  those  little  ge- 
latinous animnls  whose  mouth  surrounded  with  tenlacula  leads  to  a 
stomach  sometimes  simple  and  sometimes  followed  by  intestines  in 
the  form  of  vessels.  To  this  class  belong  those  innumerable  com- 
pound animals  with  a  fixed  and  solid  stem  which  were  considered  as 
marine  plants. 

The  Thethyire  and  Sponges  are  usually  placed  at  the  end  of  this 
class,  although  Polypi  have  not  yet  been  discovered  in  them. 

The  Infusoria,  or  the  fifth  and  last  class  of  the  Zoophytes,  are 
those  minute  beings  whose  existence  we  have  only  discovered  by 
means  of  the  microscope,  and  which  swarm  in  stagnant  waters. 
Most  of  them  have  merely  a  gelatinous  body  destitute  of  viscera,  al- 
though we  commence  the  series  with  more  compound  species  pos- 
sessed of  visible  organs  of  locomotion  and  a  stomach:  these  also 
may  hereafter  constitute  a  separate  class. 


CLASS  I. 


ECHINODERMATA.(l) 

The  Echinodermata  are  the  most  complicated  animals  of  this  di- 
vision. Invested  with  a  well  organized  skin,  frequently  supported  by 
a  sort  of  skeleton,  and  armed  with  points,  or  movable  and  articulated 
spines,  they  have  an  internal  cavity  in  which  distinct  and  floating 
viscera  may  be  perceived.  A  sort  of  vascular  system,  which  it  is 
true  does  not  extend  throughout  the  body,  keeps  up  a  communica- 
tion with  various  parts  of  the  Intestine,  and  with  the  organs  of  res- 
piration, which  are  generally  very  distinct.  Threads  are  also  seen 
in  several,  which  may  act  as  nerves,  but  which  are  never  arranged 
with  the  regularity  and  fixed  order  of  those  in  the  animals  of  the 
two  preceding  divisions  of  the  Invertebrata. 


(I)  Hedge-hog  (i.  e.  spiny)  skinned. 


500  ECHINODERMATA. 

We  divide  the  Echinodermata  into  two  orders:  those  furnished 
with  feet  or  at  least  with  vesicular  organs,  so  called  on  account  of 
their  fulfilling  similar  functions;  and  those  in  which  they  are  wanting. 


ORDER  I. 
PEDICELLATA. 

The  Pedicellata  are  distinguished  by  organs  of  motion  exclusively 
peculiar  to  them.  Their  skin  is  pierced  with  a  number  of  little 
holes,  arranged  in  very  regular  series,  through  which  pass  cylindri- 
cal and  membranous  tentacula,  each  one  terminated  by  a  little  disk 
which  acts  like  a  cupping-glass.  That  portion  of  these  tentacula 
which  remains  within  the  body  is  vesicular;  a  humour  is  effused 
through  their  entire  cavity,  and  is  either  propelled  at  the  will  of  the 
animal  into  the  exterior  and  cylindrical  portion,  which  it  distends, 
or  returns  to  the  interior  vesicle,  when  the  former  sinks  and  becomes 
relaxed.  It  is  by  thus  elongating  and  shortening  their  hundreds  of 
little  feet  or  tentacula,  and  by  fixing  them  by  their  cup-like  extremi- 
ties, that  these  animals  effect  their  progressive  motion.  Vessels 
proceeding  from  these  feet  extend  to  trunks  which  correspond  to 
their  ranges,  and  which  terminate  near  the  mouth.  They  form  a 
system  distinct  from  that  of  the  intestinal  vessels  observed  in  some 
species. 

Linnaeus  divided  them  into  three  very  natural,  but  numerous  ge- 
nera, and  composed  of  such  various  species,  that  they  may  be  consi- 
dered as  forming  three  families.     The 

AsTEKiAS,  Lin. 
Or  Stttr/ish,  have  been  so  called  because  their  body  is  divided  into  rays 
(generally  five),  in  the  centre  of  which,  and  underneath,  is  the  mouth. 

The  framework  of  their  body  is  composed  of  small  osseous  pieces,  vari- 
ously combined,  the  arrang-ement  of  which  merits  examination.  Their 
power  of  reproduction  is  very  great,  as  they  not  only  reproduce  the  rays 
which  have  been  separately  removed,  but  a  single  one  with  the  central  ray 
remaining  will  reproduce  all  the  others;  for  this  reason  their  figure  is  fre- 
quently irregular. 

Echinus,  Lin. 
The  Eehini,  or  Sea-Vrehins,  as  they  are  termed,  have  the  body  uvvestcd  by 


PEDICELLATA.  501 

a  shell  or  calcareous  crust,  composed  of  angular  pieces  which  join  each 
other  exactly,  and  perforated  by  innumerable  holes,  for  the  transmission  of 
the  membranous  feet,  disposed  in  several  very  regular  ranges.  The  sur- 
face of  this  crust  is  armed  with  spines,  articulated  on  little  tubercles,  that 
move  at  the  will  of  the  animal,  whose  motions,  conjointly  with  the  feet 
situated  between  them,  they  effect.  Other  membranous  tubes,  much  finer 
and  frequently  divided  at  the  extremity,  probably  serve  to  convey  water 
into  the  interior  of  their  shell,  and  then  to  remove  it.  The  mouth  is  pro- 
vided with  five  teeth,  set  in  an  extremely  complex,  calcareous  framework, 
resembhng  a  pentagonal  lantern,  furnished  with  various  muscles,  and  sus- 
pended in  a  large  aperture  of  the  shell.  These  teeth,  which  resemble  long 
ribands,  become  indented  inferiorly  as  fast  as  they  are  worn  away  at  the 
point.  The  intestine  is  very  long,  and  attached,  spirally,  to  the  interior 
parietes  of  the  shell  by  a  mesentery.  A  double  vascular  system  extends 
along  this  canal,  and  partly  on  the  mesentery;  there  are  also  particular  ves- 
sels for  the  feet.  Five  ovaries  empty  themselves  by  separate  orifices; 
they  form  the  edible  portion  of  these  animals. 

The  Echini  chiefly  feed  on  small  shell-fish,  which  they  seize  with  their 
feet.  Their  motions  are  very  slow.  Shells  of  Echini  are  very  abundant  in 
the  ancient  strata,  principally  those  of  chalk,  where  they  are  usually  filled 
with  silex- 

The  Echini  are  divided  into  regular  and  irregular,  and  form  several  sub- 
genera. 

E-  esculentus,  L.  The  common  Echinus  is  of  the  form  and  size  of  Sn 
apple,  completely  covered  with  short,  radiating,  and  usually  violet  spines. 
Its  ovaries,  which  are  reddish,  and  of  an  agreeable  flavour,  are  edible  in 
the  spring. 

HOLOTHURIA,  Lin. 

The  Holothurise  have  an  oblong  coriaceous  body  open  at  each  end.  At 
the  anterior  extremity  is  the  mouth,  surrounded  with  complicated  tentacula 
susceptible  of  being  entirely  retracted.  At  the  opposite  end  is  the  aper- 
ture in  which  the  organ  of  respiration  terminates.  It  is  in  the  form  of  an  ex- 
tremely ramified  hollow  tree,  which  is  filled  with  water,  or  emptied,  at  the 
will  of  the  animal.  The  mouth  is  edentate,  or  merely  furnished  with  a  cir- 
cle of  bony  pieces;  it  receives  saliva  from  certain  sac-like  appendages. 

The  Holothurise  are  divided  according  to  the  arrangement  of  their  feet. 

H.  tremula,  Gm.  Blackish,  and  when  completely  extended  more  than  a 
foot  long;  its  back  is  bristled  with  soft  and  conical  points,  and  its  mouth 
provided  with  twenty  ramous  tentacula.  This  species  is  very  common  in 
European  seas,  the  Mediterranean  particularly. 


502  ECHINODERMATA, 

ORDER  II. 

APODA.(l) 

Our  second  order  of  the  Echinodermata,  or  the  Apoda,  comprises 
but  a  small  number  of  animals  closely  related  to  the  Holothuriae, 
but  which  want  the  vesicular  feet  of  the  preceding  order.  Their 
body  is  invested  with  a  coriaceous  unarmed  skin.  Several  points  of 
their  internal  structure  are  not  well  understood.     In 

MoLPADiA,  Cuv. 
As  in  Holothuria,  we  find  a  coriaceous  body  fonning'  a  thick  cylinder,  open 
at  both  ends,  and  a  tolerably  similar  internal  organization;  but  independ- 
ently of  the  want  of  feet,  the  mouth  is  destitute  of  tentacula,  and  is  provided 
with  an  apparatus  of  bony  parts,  but  less  complicated  than  that  of  the 
Echini. 

MlNVAS,  Cuv. 

Where  the  body  is  also  destitute  of  feet  and  open  at  both  extremities;  but 
its  form  is  that  of  a  spheroid  depressed  at  the  poles,  and  furrowed  like 
a  melon.    1  can  find  no  armature  about  the  mouth. 

M.  cyanea,  Cuv.  A  beautiful  species  of  a  deep  blue  colour  that  inhabits 
the  Atlantic  ocean. 

LiTHODERMIS,  CuV. 

Where  the  body  is  oval  and  compressed  posteriorly;  its  surface  has  the 
appearance  of  being  covered  with  a  layer  of  stony  granules,  which  form 
an  extremely  indurated  crust.  The  mouth  is  surrounded  with  tentacula, 
and  the  intestines  seem  to  be  analogous  to  those  of  the  Holothuriae. 

L.  cuneus,  Cuv.  Blackish,  and  two  inches  in  length.  From  the  seas  of 
India,  and  the  only  species  known.     In  the 

SiPUNcuLUs,  Gm. 
The  body  is  cylindrical  and  elongated,  the  skin  thick  and  wrinkled  in  both 
directions.     The  mouth  is  provided  with  a  sort  of  a  proboscis  susceptible  of 
retraction  and  protrusion  by  the  action  of  large  internal  muscles. 

These  animals  are  found  in  the  sands  of  the  sea,  like  the  Arenicolx  and 
Thalassemac,  and  like  them  are  used  as  bait  by  the  fishermen. 

S.  edulis,  Cuv.  This  species  is  eaten  by  the  Chinese  inhabitants  of  Java, 
who  procure  it  from  the  sands  by  means  of  slender  bamboos  prepared  for 
the  purpose.  Other  and  rather  small  species — Sip.  Isevis,  Sip.  verrucosus, 
•Cuv. — :perfora4;e  submarine  rocks  and  live  in  their  cavities. 

CI)  Footless. 


APODA.  503 

BoNELLLji,  Rolando. 
Here  the  body  is  oval  and  furnished  with  a  proboscis  formed  of  a  double 
lamina  susceptible  of  g^eat  elongation  and  forked  at  the  extremity.  The 
intestine  is  very  long'  and  frequently  flexed,  and  we  observe  two  ramified 
organs  which  may  serve  for  resphation.  The  ova  are  contained  in  an  ob- 
long sac  opening  near  the  base  of  the  proboscis.  The  Bonellix  live  at  a 
considerable  depth  in  sand,  extending  their  proboscis  to  the  water  and  even 
to  the  air  above  its  surface  when  the  tide  is  low. 

B.  viridis,  Rol.    It  inhabits  the  Mediterranean. 

There  are  some  other  genera. 


CLASS  II. 


ENTOZOA,  Rud. 

The  Entozoa  or  Intestinal  Worms  are  remarkable,  because  the 
greater  number  inhabit  the  interior  of  other  animals,  and  there  only 
can  live.  There  is  scarcely  a  single  animal  that  is  not  the  domicil 
of  several  kinds,  and  those  which  are  observed  in  one  species  are 
rarely  found  in  many  others.  They  not  only  inhabit  the  alimentary 
canal  and  the  ducts  that  empty  into  it,  such  as  the  hepatic  vessels, 
but  even  the  cellular  tissue,  and  the  parenchyma  of  the  most  com- 
pletely invested  viscera,  such  as  the  liver  and  brain. 

In  the  Intestinal  Worms  we  find  neither  tracheae,  nor  any  other 
organ  of  respiration,  and  they  must  receive  the  influence  of  oxygen 
through  the  medium  of  the  animal  they  inhabit.  They  present  no 
trace  of  a  true  circulation,  and  we  merely  perceive  vestiges  of  nerves 
so  extremely  obscure,  that  many  naturalists  have  doubted  their  ex- 
istence. 

When  those  characters  are  found  united  in  an  animal  with  a  form 
similar  to  that  of  this  class,  we  place  it  here,  although  it  may  not  in- 
habit the  interior  of  another  species. 

We  will  divide  the  Entozoa  in  two  orders,  which  are  perhaps 
sufficiently  different  in  organization  to  form  two  classes,  if  we  had 
the  observations  requisite  to  determine  their  limits.  These  orders 
are  the  Entoxoa  Nematoidea,  Rud.,  "which  have  an  intestinal  canal 


^h 


504  ENTOZOA. 


floating  in  a  distinct  abdominal  cavity,  a'raoutb,  &c.,  and  the  Ento- 
zoa  Parenchymata,  where  the  parenchyma  of  the  body  contains 
obscurely  terminated  viscera,  most  commonly  resembling  vascular 
ramifications,  and  sometimes  not  visible. 


ORDER  I. 

NEMATOIDEA,  Rud. 

This  order  comprises  those  whose  external  skin,  more  or  less 
furnished  with  muscular  fibres,  and  usually  striated  transversely, 
contains  an  abdominal  cavity  in  which  is  a  distinct  intestinal  canal, 
extending  from  the  mouth  to  the  extremity,  and  where  the  sexes  are 
usually  distinct.  The  intestine  is  connected  with  the  neighbouring 
parts  and  the  general  envelope  of  the  body  by  numerous  threads, 
considered  by  some  writers  as  vessels  for  the  conveyance  of  the 
nutritious  fluid,  and  by  others  as  tracheas,  but  without  any  proof  of 
the  fact.  It  is  impossible  to  detect  any  true  circulation  in  these 
animals,  but  in  several  there  appear  to  be  one  or  two  nervous  cords 
arising  from  a  ring  which  surrounds  the  mouth,  and  extending  the 
whole  length  of  the  body  along  the  internal  surface  of  the  envelope. 

FiLARiA,  Lin- 
Where  the  body  is  elongated,  slender,  filiform,  and  perforated  at  the  ante- 
rior extremity  by  a  round  oral  aperture.  The  FUarise  in  their  external  ap- 
pearance are  very  similar  to  the  Gordii.  They  are  chiefly  found  in  those 
cavities  of  animals  which  do  not  open  externally,  such  as  the  cellular  mem- 
brane, and  even  in  the  thickness  of  the  membranes  and  the  parenchyma  of 
the  viscera ;  there  we  sometimes  find  them  in  bundles  and  countless  num- 
bers, enveloped  in  species  of  capsules.  They  are  found  in  Insects  and  their 
larvae,  and  even  in  the  visceral  cavity  of  several  Mollusca.  The  most  cele- 
brated species  of  this  genus 

F.  medinensis,  Gm.,  (the  Guinea  Worm),  is  very  common  in  hot  cli- 
mates, insinuates  itself  under  the  skin  of  man,  generally  that  of  the  leg, 
where,  if  credence  be  given  to  the  reports  of  certain  authors,  it  acquires  a 
length  of  ten  feet  and  more.  It  is  about  as  thick  as  the  barrel  of  a  Pigeon's 
qiull.    Its  pointed  and  hooked  tail  constitutes  its  distinguishing  character. 

TeICHOCEPH  ALUS . 

Where  the  body  is  roimd,  thickest  posteriorly,  and  as  slender  as  a  thread 


NEMATOIDEA.  505 

anteriorly.  Tliis  slender  partis  terminated  by  a  round  mouth*  The  most 
common  species  is  the 

T.  dispar,  Rud.  From  one  to  two  Inches  in  length,  of  which  the  thickest 
portion  forms  but  the  third.     This  part,  in  the  male,  is  convoluted  spLi-ally. 

It  is  one  of  the  most  common  Worms  in  the  great  intestines  of  Man,  where, 
in  certain  diseases,  it  becomes  prodigiously  multiplied. 

CUCULLANTTS. 
Here  the  body  is  round,  and  most  slender  posteriorly.    The  head  is  obtuse 
and  Invested  with  a  sort  of  hood  that  is  frequently  striated;  the  mouth  is 
round. 

They  have  hitherto  been  found  in  Fish  only.  The  most  common  species 
is  that  which  Inhabits  the  Perch  and  also  Infests  the  Pike,  &c.  I*  is  vivipar- 
ous, about  an  inch  long,  as  thick  as  a  thread,  and  of  a  red  colour,  owing  to 
the  blood  with  which  its  intestine  is  usually  fiUed. 

Ophiostoma. 
The  same  kind  of  body  as  the  preceding,  but  distinguished  by  a  trans- 
versely cleft  mouth,  and  consequently  furnished  with  two  lips. 

AscAKis,  Lin.(l) 
The  Ascarides  have  a  round  body,  attenuated  at  each  extremity,  and  a 
mouth  furnished  with  three  fleshy  papillae,  between  which  an  extremely 
short  tube  occasionally  projects.    This  genus  is  very  numerous  in  species 
which  are  found  in  all  kinds  of  animals. 

Two  white  threads,  one  of  which  extends  along  the  back,  and  the  other 
along  the  abdomen,  are  considered  by  Messrs  Otto  and  Cloquet  as  the  ner- 
vous system  of  these  animals;  two  other  and  thicker  threads,  one  on  the 
right  and  the  other  on  the  left,  are  considered  by  some  as  muscular,  and  by 
others  as  vascular,  or  even  as  tracheae. 

In  some,  the  head  is  destitute  of  lateral  membranes.  The  most  common 
species,  the 

A.  lumbricoides,  L.,  Is  found  without  any  essential  difference  in  Man,  the 
Horse,  Ass,  Zebra,  Hemiona,  Ox  and  Hog.  It  has  been  seen  more  than  fif- 
teen inches  In  length.     Its  natural  colour  is  white. 

Other  species  are  furnished  with  a  little  membrane  on  each  side  of  the 
head*     Such  is 

wS.  vermicularis,  L.  Very  common  in  children.  It  is  not  more  than  five 
linea  in  length,  and  is  thickest  anteriorly. 


(1)  diTK^ptt,  the  name  of  the  small  species  that  is  found  in  Man,  is  derived 
from  tta-ieafi^ai,  to  leap,  to  move. 


3  O 


506  ENTOZOA. 

Strongylus,  Mull. 

Here  the  body  is  round.  In  some  of  these  Strongyli  the  mouth  is  ciliate  or 
dentated.     Such  is  that  which  infests  the  Horse,  or  the 

S.  equinus,  Gm.     It  is  also  found  in  the  Ass  and  Mule. 

The  mouth  of  others  is  merely  surrounded  by  tubercles  or  papillse.  Such 
particularly  is  the 

S.  gigas,  Rud.,  the  most  voluminous  of  all  known  intestinal  Worms;  it 
is  upwards  of  two  or  three  feet  in  length,  and  as  thick  as  the  little  finger. 
The  most  singular  circumstances  attending  this  Strongylus  is  that  it  is  most 
usually  developed  in  one  of  the  kidneys  of  various  animals,  such  as  the 
Wolf,  Dog,  Mink,  and  even  Man,  where  it  lies  doubled  up,  distending  that 
organ,  destroying  its  parenchyma,  and  probably  occasioning  the  most  ex- 
cruciating agony  to  the  animal  in  which  it  resides.  It  sometimes  inhabits 
other  viscera-  Its  usual  colour  is  a  beautiful  red;  the  mouth  is  surrounded 
with  six  papillse;  the  intestine  is  straight  and  transversely  rugose,  the  ovary 
simple,  three  or  four  times  the  length  of  the  body,  communicating  exteriorly 
by  a  hole  a  little  distance  posterior  to  the  mouth,  and,  as  it  appears,  open 
at  the  other  extremity.  An  extremely  attenuated  white  thread  that  extends 
along  the  abdomen  is  considered  by  M.  Otto  as  the  nervous  system. 

Lern^a,  Lin. 

The  internal  and  external  organization  of  the  body  is  nearly  the  same  as  in 
the  Nematoidea,  but  it  is  prolonged  anteriorly  by  a  corneous  neck,  at  the 
extremity  of  which  is  a  mouth  variously  armed  and  surrounded,  or  followed 
by  productions  of  different  forms.  This  mouth  and  its  appendages  are  in- 
sinuated into  the  skin  of  the  gills  of  fishes,  and  fix  the  animal  there.  The 
Lernese  are  also  distinguished  by  two  cords,  sometimes  moderate,  and  at 
others  very  long,  or  even  much  doubled,  that  are  pendent  from  the  sides  of 
the  tail,  and  which  may  possibly  be  ovaries. 

L.  branchialis,  L.  The  most  known  species;  it  attacks  the  Codfish  and 
other  Gadi,  and  is  from  one  to  two  inches  in  length.  Its  mouth  is  surround- 
ed by  three  ramous  horns,  which,  as  well  as  the  neck,  are  of  a  deep  brown. 
Its  more  inflated  body  is  bent  into  an  S,  and  the  two  cords  are  contorted 
in  a  thousand  different  ways.  Its  horns  become  rooted,  as  it  were,  in  the 
gills  of  fishes. 


ORDER  II. 

PARENCHYMATA. 

The  second  order  of  the  Entozoa  comprises  those  species  in 
which  the  body   is  filled  with  a  cellular  substance,  or  even  with  a 


PARENCHYMATA.  507 

continuous  parenchyma,  the  only  ahmentary  organ  it  contains  being 
ramified  canals,  which  distribute  nourishment  to  its  different  points, 
and  which,  in  most  of  them,  originate  from  suckers  visible  exter- 
nally. The  ovaries  are  also  enveloped  in  this  parenchyma  or  that 
cellulosity.  There  is  no  abdominal  cavity,  nor  intestine  properly 
so  called;  and  if  we  except  some  equivocal  vestiges  in  the  first  fami- 
lies, there  is  nothing  to  be  found  which  bears  a  resemblance  to 
nerves. 

We  may  divide  this  order  into  four  families. 

FAMILY   I. 

ACANTHOCEPHALA.(l) 

The  Parenchymata  of  this  family  attach  themselves  to  the  intes- 
tines by  a  prominence  armed  with  recurved  spines,  which  also  ap- 
pears to  act  as  a  proboscis.     They  form  the  single  genus 

ECHINORHYNCHUS,  Gm. 

Where  the  body  is  round,  sometimes  elongated,  and  sometimes  in  the  form 
of  a  sac,  provided  anteriorly  with  a  prominence  in  the  form  of  a  probos- 
cis armed  with  little  hooks  bent  posteriorly,  and  susceptible  of  being  re- 
tracted or  protruded  by  the  action  of  particular  muscles.  These  worms 
cling  to  the  intestines  by  means  of  their  proboscis,  and  frequently  penetrate 
through  them,  so  that  individuals  are  sometimes  found  in  the  thickness  of 
their  tunics,  and  even  in  the  abdomen,  adhering  to  their  external  parietes. 
E.  gigas,  Gm.  The  largest  species  known;  it  inhabits  the  intestines  of 
the  Hog  and  Wild  Boar,  where  the  females  attain  a  length  of  fifteen  inches. 

FAMILY  II. 

TREMADOTEA,  Rud. 

Our  second  family  comprises  those  which  are  furnished  under- 
neath the  body,  or  at  its  extremity,  with  organs  resembling  cupping- 
glasses,  by  which  they  adhere  to  the  viscera.  They  may  all  be 
united  in  one  genus,  or  the 


(1)  Thorn-headed. 


508  ENTOZOA. 

•   FAacioLA,  Lin. 
Which  may  be  subdivided  according  to  the  number  and  position  of  their 
organs  of  adhesion. 

DiSTOMA. 

Here  there  is  a  sucker  at  the  anterior  extremity  of  the  mouth,  and  a  cup, 

a  little  posterior  to  it,  on  the  venter.  The  species  are  very  numerous,  and 
some  are  found  even  in  the  plaited  membrane  of  the  eyes  of  certain  Birds. 
Others,  however,  appear  to  inhabit  fresh  and  salt  water.  The  most  cele- 
brated is 

D.  hepatica.  It  is  very  common  in  the  hepatic  vessels  of  Sheep,  but  is 
also  found  in  those  of  various  other  llumlnantia,  and  of  the  Hog,  Horse,  and 
even  of  Man.  Its  form  is  that  of  a  small  oval  leaf,  pointed  posteriorly, 
with  a  narrowed  portion  anteriorly,  at  the  end  of  which  is  the  first  sucker, 
which  communicates  with  a  sort  of  esophagus,  from  which  arise  canals  that 
ramify  throughout  the  body,  conveying  the  bile  on  which  this  animal  feeds. 

The  species  that  infest  Sheep  become  greatly  multiplied  when  they  graze 
in  low  and  wet  grounds,  rendering  them  dropsical,  and  finally  kilUng  them. 

There  are  several  other  generaw 


FAMILY  III. 

T^NIOIDEA, 

In  our  third  family  of  parenchymatous  Intestinal  Worms,  we  place 
all  those  species  in  which  the  head  is  provided  with  two  or  four 
suckers  placed  around  its  middle,  which  is  itself  sometimes  marked 
with  a  pore,  and  sometimes  furnished  with  a  little  proboscis,  naked 
or  armed  with  spines.  Sometimes  there  are  four  little  trunks  thus 
armed. 

The  most  numerous  genus  is 

TjENia,  Lin. 
The  body  of  the  Tape-worm  is  often  excessively  elongated,  fiat,  composed 
of  joints  more  or  less  distinctly  marked,  and  narrowed  anteriorly,  where  we 
generally  find  a  square  head  hollowed  by  four  small  suckers. 

Observers  have  thought  that  they  could  perceive  canals  which  arose 
from  these  suckers,  and  crept  along  the  margin  of  the  joints  of  the  body. 
Each  of  the  latter  has  one  or  two  pores  differently  situated,  according  to  the 
species,  which  appear  to  be  the  orifices  of  ovaries  that  ore  placed  in  the 
thickness  of  the  joints,  where  they  are  sometimes  simple,  and  at  others 
ramous.  The  Taniae  are  among  the  most  cruel  enemies  of  the  animals  in 
which  they  are  developed,  and  which  ai-e  apparently  exhausted  by  them. 


PAIJENCHYMATA.  509 

T.  lata,  Rud.  (The  Common  Tape-worm. )  The  joints  are  broad,  short, 
and  furnished  with  a  double  pore  in  the  middle  of  each  side.  It  is  very 
frequently  twenty  feet  in  length,  and  it  has  been  found  upwards  of  a  hun- 
dred. The  large  ones  are  nearly  an  inch  wide,  but  the  head  and  anterior 
portion  of  tlie  body  are  always  very  slender.  This  species  is  exti-emely 
injurious  and  tenacious.  The  most  violent  remedies  frequently  fail  to  expel 
it     In  Man. 

T.  solium,  L.  Ver  solitaire  of  the  French.  Its  joints,  the  anterior  ones 
excepted,  are  longer  than  they  are  wide,  and  have  the  pore  'placed  alter- 
nately on  one  of  their  edges.  It  is  usually  from  four  to  ten  feet  in  length, 
but  much  larger  ones  are  sometimes  met  with.  The  vulgar  idea  that  but 
one  of  these  animals  is  found  at  a  time  in  the  same  individual  is  very  far 
from  being  true.  Its  detached  joints  are  styled  cucurbitini.  It  is  one  of 
the  most  dangerous  of  the  intestinal  worms  and  the  most  difficult  to  expel. 

From  these  ordinary  Tjenias,  on  account  of  the  form  of  their  head, 
are  distinguished  various  others,  forming  the  Tricuspidaria,  &c. 

Naturalists  have  also  distinguished  from  the  ordinary  Tasnae  those 
which,  with  a  similar  head,  that  is  one  with  four  suckers,  have  the 
body  terminated  posteriorly  by  a  bladder.  Their  joints  are  not  as 
distinctly  marked  as  in  the  preceding  ones.     The  genus 

Cysticeecus,  Rud. 

Vulgarly  termed  Hydatids,  is  composed  of  those  in' which  the  bladder  sup- 
ports but  a  single  body  and  one  head.  They  are  particularly  developed  in 
the  membranes  and  cellulosity  of  animals. 

C.  cellulosse.  This  species  is  the  most  celebrated  of  the  whole  number, 
and  lives  between  the  fibres  of  the  muscles  of  the  Hog,  producing  the  dis- 
ease called  measles.  It  is  small,  and  multiplies  prodigiously  in  this  disgust- 
ing disease,  penetrating  into  the  heart,  eyes,  &c.  Similar  animals  have,  it 
appears,  been  observed  in  certain  Monkeys,  and  even  in  Man. 


FAMILY  IV. 

CESTOIDEA. 

The  fourth  family  comprises  those  which  are  destitute  of  external 
suckers. 

But  one  genus  is  known. 

LiGULA,  Bloch. 
of  all  the  Entozoa,  these  appear  to  be  the  most  simply  organized.     Their 
body  resembles  a  long  riband;  it  is  flat,  obtuse  before,  marked  with  a  ion- 


510  ENTOZOA. 

gitudinal  stria,  and  finely  striated  transversely.  No  external  organ  what- 
ever is  perceptible,  and  internally  we  find  nothing  but  the  ova,  variously 
distributed  in  the  length  of  the  parenchyma. 

They  inhabit  the  abdomen  of  certain  Birds,  and  particularly  of  various 
fresh-water  Fishes,  enveloping  and  constricting  their  intestines  to  such  a 
degree  as  to  destroy  them.  At  certain  periods  they  even  perforate  the 
parietes  of  their  abdomen  to  leave  it.     One  of  them,  the 

L.  abdominalis,  Gm.,  inhabits  the  Bream.  In  some  parts  of  Italy  these 
worms  are  considered  agreeable  food. 


CLASS  III. 
ACALEPHA.(l) 

Our  third  class  comprises  Zoophyta  which  swim  in  the  waters  of 
the  ocean,  and  in  whose  organization  we  can  still  perceive  vessels, 
which,  it  is  true,  are  generally  mere  productions  of  the  intestines 
excavated  in  the  parenchyma  of  the  body. 


ORDER  I. 

SIMPLICIA. 

The  simple  Acalepha  float  and  swim  in  the  ocean  by  the  alternate 
contractions  and  dilatations  of  their  body,  although  their  substance 
is  gelatinous  and  without  any  apparent  fibres.  The  species  of  ves- 
sels observed  in  some  of  them  are  hollowed  out  of  their  gelatinous 
substance;  they  frequently  and  evidently  originate  from  the  stomach, 
and  do  not  occasion  a  true  circulation. 

Medusa,  Lin. 
The  Medusae  are  furnished  superiorly  with  a  disk  more  or  less  convex,  re- 
sembling the  head  of  a  mushroom,  and  called  the  umbella.    Its  contractions 


(1)  Nettles,  from  aic«x*f». 


SIMPLICIA.  511 

and  dilatations  assist  the  locomotion  of  the  animal.  The  edges  of  this  um- 
bella,  as  well  as  the  mouth,  or  the  suckers  more  or  less  prolonged  into 
pedicles  which  supply  the  want  of  it,  in  tlie  middle  of  the  inferior  surface, 
are  furnished  witli  tentacula  of  various  forms  and  very  different  sizes. 
These  various  degrees  of  complication  have  given  rise  to  numerous  divisions. 

The  two  following  genera,  which  were  formerly  joined  with  the 
Medusae,  might  also  constitute  a  small  family  in  this  order,  on  ac- 
count of  the  internal  cartilage  which  supports  the  gelatinous  sub- 
stance of  the  body. 

PoKPiTA,  Lam. 

Where  this  cartilage  is  circular  and  its  surface  marked  with  concentric 
strise  crossed  by  radiating  striae.  The  superior  surface  is  merely  invested 
with  a  thin  membrane  that  projects  beyond  it;  the  infei'ior  is  covered  with 
a  great  number  of  tentacula,  the  exterior  of  which  are  the  longest,  and  fur- 
nished with  little  ciha,  each  terminated  by  a  globule.  They  sometimes 
contain  air;  those  in  the  middle  are  the  shortest,  simplest  and  most  fleshy. 
In  the  centre  of  all  these  tentacula  is  the  mouth,  in  the  form  of  a  little  sa- 
lient proboscis.  It  leads  to  a  simple  stomach  surrounded  by  a  sort  of  glan- 
dular substance.  One  species  is  known,  of  a  beautiful  blue  colour,  that 
inhabits  the  Mediterranean  and  seas  of  hot  climates. 

Velella,  Lam. 

Where,  as  in  Porpita,  there  is  a  mouth  in  the  inferior  surface  in  the  form 
of  a  proboscis,  surrounded  with  innumerable  tentacula,  the  exterior  of  which 
is  the  longest,  but  the  latter  are  not  ciliated,  and  a  still  more  important 
character  is,  that  tlie  cai'tilage,  which  is  oval,  has  on  its  superior  surface  a 
vertical  and  tolerably  elevated  crest.  This  cartilage  is  diaphanous,  and  is 
merely  marked  with  concentric  striee.  A  species  of  this  genus  also  is  known, 
of  the  same  colour  as  the  Porpita  and  inhabiting  the  same  seas.  It  is  eaten 
fried. 


ORDER  II. 

HYDROSTATICA. 

The  Hydrostatic  Acalepha  are  known  by  one  or  more  bladders 
usually  filled  with  air,  by  means  of  which  they  suspend  themselves 
in  their  liquid  element.  Excessively  numerous  and  variously  shaped 
appendages,  some  of  which  probably  serve  as  suckers,  and  the  others 


513  AGALEPHA. 

perhaps  as  ovaries,  and  some  longer  than  the  rest  as  tentacula, 
are  attached  to  these  vesicles  and  compose  the  whole  apparent  or- 
ganization of  these  animals.  They  have  no  apparent  mouth,  or  one 
which  can  be  decidedly  considered  as  such. 

Physalta,  Lam. 

The  Physalije  resemble  an  extremely  large  oblong  bladder  elevated  supe- 
riorly into  an  oblique  and  wrinkled  crest,  and  furnished  beneath,  near  one 
of  its  extremities,  with  numerous,  cylindrical,  fleshy  productions,  variously 
terminated,  that  communicate  with  the  bladder.  Those  in  the  middle  give 
origin  to  more  or  less  numerous  groups  of  little  filaments;  the  lateral  ones 
are  merely  divided  into  two  threads,  one  of  which  is  frequently  very  long. 
There  appears  to  be  an  extremely  small  orifice  in  one  of  the  extremities  of 
the  bladder,  but  internally  no  other  intestine  is  found,  but  another  bladder 
with  thinner  parietes.  There  is  no  nervous,  circulating,  nor  glandular 
system.  The  animal  swims  on  the  surface  of  the  sea  when  it  is  calm,  em- 
ploying its  crest  as  a  sail.  When  living,  it  is  also  furnished  with  extremely 
long  filaments,  more  slender  than  the  others,  which  are  sprinkled,  as  it 
were,  with  pearls  or  drops.  Its  touch  Is  said  to  sting  and  burn  like  that  of 
the  Sea-nettle.    They  are  found  in  all  the  seas  of  hot  climates. 

Phtssophora,  Forsk. 
These  Acalepha  are  evidently  allied  to  the  Physalise,  but  their  bladder  is 
proportionally  much  smaller,  has  no  crest,  and  is  frequently  accompanied 
by  lateral  bladders;  their  various  and  numerous  tentacula  are  suspended 
vertically  under  the  bladder,  like  a  garland  or  cluster. 

It  is  directly  after  these  hydrostatic  Acalepha  that  we  may  place 
the 

DiPHYES,  Cuv. 

A  very  singular  genus,  where  two  different  individuals  are  always  found  to- 
gether, one  encased  in  a  cavity  of  the  other,  but  susceptible  of  being  sepa- 
rated without  destroying  the  life  of  either.  They  are  gelatinous,  diaphan- 
ous, and  move  nearly  in  the  manner  of  a  Medusa.  The  receiver  produces 
from  the  bottom  of  its  cavity  a  chaplet  which  traverses  a  semi-canal  in  the 
received,  and  appears  to  be  composed  of  tentacula,  and  suckers,  like  those  of 
the  preceding  genera. 

This  genus  has  been  divided  by  Messrs  Quoy  and  Gaymard  according  to 
the  relative  form  and  proportions  of  the  two  individuals. 


POLYPI.  513 


CLASS  IV. 
POLYPI.      ^ 

Our  fourth  class  of  the  Radiata,  or  Zoophytes  has  been  thus 
named  because  the  tentacula  which  surround  their  mouth  give  them 
a  slight  resemblance  to  an  Octopus  called  Polypus  by  the  ancients. 
The  number  and  form  of  these  tentacula  vary.  The  body  is  always 
cylindrical  or  conical,  frequently  without  any  other  viscus  than  its 
cavity,  and  frequently  also  with  a  visible  stomach,  to  which  adhere 
intestines  or  rather  vessels  excavated  in  the  substance  of  the  body 
like  those  of  the  Medusae;  in  this  latter  case  we  usually  find  ovaries 
also.  Most  of  these  animals  are  capable  of  forming  compound  be- 
ings, by  shooting  out  new  individuals,  like  buds.  They  are  also, 
however,  continued  bv  eggs. 


ORDER  L 

CARNOSI. 

The  first  order  comprises  fleshy  animals  that  usually  fix  them- 
selves by  their  base,  several  of  which,  however,  have  the  power  of 
crawling  on  that  base,  or  even  of  detaching  it  altogether,  and  swim- 
ming or  suffering  themselves  to  be  carried  away  by  the  current. 
Most  commonly,  however,  they  merely  expand  the  oral  aperture.  It 
is  surrounded  with  a  greater  or  less  number  of  tentacula,  and  opens 
into  a  stomach  en  cul-de-sac.  Between  this  internal  sac  and  the 
external  skin  we  find  a  tolerably  complex,  but  still  obscure  organi- 
zation, chiefly  consisting  of  fibrous  and  vertical  leaflets,  to  which  the 
ovaries,  that  resemble  tangled  threads,  are  attached.  The  intervals 
of  these  leaflets  communicate  with  the  interior  of  the  tentacula,  and 
it  appears  that  water  penetrates  into  and  issues  from  them  by  small 
orifices  in  (he  circumference  of  the  mouth;  the  Actiniae,  at  least, 
sometimes  ejaculate  it  in  this  manner. 
3  P 


514  POLYPI. 

Actinia,  Lin. 
The  fleshy  body  of  these  Polypi  is  frequently  ornamented  with  bright 
colours,  and  exhibits  numerous  tentacula  placed  round  the  mouth  in  seve- 
ral ranges,  like  the  petals  of  a  double  flower,  and  hence  their  common 
name  of  Sea-Anemones.  They  are  extremely  sensible  to  the  influence  of 
light,  and  expand  or  close  in  proportion  to  the  fineness  of  the  day. 
When  they  retract  their  tentacula,  the  opening  through  which  those  organs 
pass  contracts  and  closes  over  them  like  the  mouth  of  a  purse. 

Their  power  of  reproduction  is  scarcely  inferior  to  that  of  the  Hydra; 
parts  that  have  been  amputated  shoot  out  again,  and  the  animal  may  be 
multiplied  by  division.  These  Zoophytes,  when  hungry,  dilate  their  mouth 
to  a  great  extent.  They  devour  all  sorts  of  animals,  especially  Crus- 
tacea, Shell-fish,  and  small  Fishes,  which  they  capture  with  their  tentacula, 
and  soon  digest. 

A.  equina,  L.  The  skin  soft  and  finely  striated,  usually  of  a  fine  purple 
colour  frequently  spotted  with  green;  it  is  smaller  than  the  senilis,  with 
longer  and  more  numerous  tentacula.  This  species  covers  all  the  rocks  on 
the  French  coast  of  the  British  channel,  ornamenting  them  as  if  with  the 
most  splendid  flowers. 

LUCEENARIA,  Mull. 
The  Lucernariae  should  apparently  be  approximated  to  the  Actinije,  but 
their  substance  is  softer;  they  fix  themselves  to  fuci  and  other  marine 
bodies  by  a  slender  pedicle,  and  their  superior  portion  dilates  like  a  parasol, 
in  the  centre  of  which  is  the  mouth.  Numerous  tentacula  united  in  bundles 
are  arranged  round  its  edges. 


ORDER  II. 

GELATINOSI. 

The  gelatinous  Polypi,  unlike  the  preceding  ones,  are  not  invested 
with  a  firm  envelope,  neither  is  there  a  ligneous,  fleshy,  nor  corne- 
ous axis  in  the  interior  of  their  mass.  Their  body  is  gelatinous  and 
more  of  less  conical  j  its  cavity  supplies  the  want  of  a  stomach. 

Hydra,  Lin. 
Of  all  the  animals  of  this  class,  these  are  reduced  to  the  greatest  degree  of 
simplicity.  A  little  gelatinous  horn,  whose  edges  are  provided  with  fila- 
ments that  act  as  tentacvla,  constitutes  their  whole  apparent  organization. 
The  microscope  discovei's  nothing  in  their  substance  but  a  diaphanous 
parenchyma  filled  with  more  opaque  granules.     Notwithstanding  this,  they 


GELATINOSI.  515 

swim,  crawl,  and  even  walk  by  alternately  fixing  their  two  extremities  in 
the  manner  of  Leeches  or  of  the  caterpillars  called  Geometrse.  They  agi- 
tate their  tentacula  and  use  them  for  seizing  their  prey,  which  can  be  seen 
being  digested  in  the  cavity  of  their  body.  They  are  sensible  to  the  action 
of  lig'ht,  and  seek  it,  but  their  most  wonderful  property  is  that  of  being  con- 
stantly reproduced  bj'  the  indefinite  excision  of  their  parts,  so  that  we  can 
multiply  them  at  will  by  means  of  division.  Their  natural  increase  is  by 
shoots  which  push  out  from  various  points  of  the  body  of  the  adult,  and  at 
first  resemble  branches. 

There  are  several  other  genera  belonging  to  this  order,  such  as  Corine, 
Vorticellay  &c. 


ORDER  III. 
CORALLIFERI. 

The  Coralliferi  constitute  that  numerous  suite  of  species  which 
were  long  considered  as  marine  plants,  and  of  which  the  individuals 
are  in  fact  united  in  great  numbers  to  constitute  compound  animals, 
mostly  fixed  like  plants,  either  forming  a  stem  or  simple  expansions, 
by  means  of  a  solid  internal  substance.  The  individual  animals, 
more  or  less  analogous  to  the  Actinije  or  Hydras,  are  all  connected 
by  a  common  body,  and  are  nourished  in  common,  so  that  what  is 
eaten  by  one  goes  to  the  nutrition  of  the  general  body,  and  of  all 
the  other  Polypi.  Their  volition  is  even  in  common,  at  least  it  is 
certainly  so  in  the  free  species,  such  as  the  Pennatulae,  which  are 
seen  swimming  by  the  contractions  of  their  stems,  and  the  combined 
motions  of  their  Polypi. 

The  name  of  Coral  has  been  given  to  the  common  parts  of  these 
compound  animals;  it  is  always  formed  by  deposition,  and  in  layers 
like  the  ivory  of  teeth,  but  is  sometimes  on  the  surface,  and  some- 
times in  the  interior  of  the  compound  animal.  This  difference  of 
position  has  given  rise  to  the  following  families. 

FAMILY  I. 

TUBULARII. 

Those  of  the  first  inhabit  tubes  of  which  the  common  gelatinous 
body  traverses  the  axis,  like  the  medulla  of  a  tree,  and  that  are 


516  POLYPI. 

open,  either  on  the  summit  or  sides,  to  allow  the  passage  of  the 
Polypi. 

Their  more  simple  Polypi  appear  to  be  chiefly  analogous  to  the 
Hydra3  and  Cristatellae. 

TuBiPOEA,  Lin. 

Simple  tubes  of  a  stony  substance,  each  containing  a  Polypus.  These 
tubes  are  parallel,  and  united  from  space  to  space  by  transverse  laminse, 
which  has  caused  them  to  be  compared  to  the  pipes  of  an  organ.  The 
most  common  species, 

T.  musica,  L.  5  is  of  a  beautiful  redj  its  polypi  are  green,  and  formed  like 
Hydrae.     Very  abundant  in  the  archipelago  of  India. 

TUBULARIA,  Lin. 
simple  or  branched  tubes  of  a  homy  substance,  from  the  extremities  of 
which  issue  the  Polypi. 

Sertularia,  Lin. 
The  Sertulariae  have  a  corneous  stem,  sometimes  simple,  sometimes  ramous, 
on  the  sides  of  which  are  cells,  extremely  various  in  form,  that  are  occu- 
pied by  the  Polypi,  all  connected  with  a  gelatinous  stem  that  traverses  the 
axis,  like  the  medulla  of  a  tree-  They  increase  by  ova  or  buds,  which  are 
developed  in  cells  larger  than  the  rest,  and  of  a  different  form.  The  vari- 
ous directions  of  their  cells  have  caused  them  to  be  subdivided. 


FAMILY  11. 

CELLULARIL 

Where  each  Polypus  is  adherent  in  a  corneous  or  calcareous  cell 
with  thin  parietes,  and  only  communicates  with  the  others  by  an  ex- 
tremely tenuous  external  tunic,  or  by  the  minute  pores  w^hich  tra- 
verse the  parietes  of  the  cells.  These  Polypi  bear  a  general  re- 
semblance to  the  Hydrae. 

Cellularia,  Lin. 
Where  these  cells  are  so  arranged  as  to  form  branching  stems  in  the  man- 
ner of  the  Sertularix,  but  without  a  tube  of  communication  in  the  axis.  Their 
substance  also  is  more  calcareous. 

Flustea,  Lin. 
We  here  find  a  great  number  of  cells  united  like  honey-combs,  sometimes 


CORALLIFERI.  517 

covering  various  bodies,  and  sometimes  forming  stems  or  leaves,  of  which, 
in  certain  species,  one  side  only  is  furnislied  with  cells,  and  in  others,  both: 
tlieir  substance  is  more  or  less  corneous. 

Cellepora,  Fab. 

Masses  of  small  calcareous  vesicles  or  cells,  crowded  one  against  the  other, 
and  each  perforated  by  a  little  hole. 

TuBULiPORA,  Lam. 
Masses  of  little  tubes,  of  which  the  aperture  is  as  wide  as  the  bottom,  or 
wider. 

Bodies  exist  in  the  ocean  that  resemble  the  Corals  of  which  we 
have  been  speaking,  both  in  substance  and  their  general  form,  but 
in  which  Polypi  have  not  yet  been  discovered.  Their  nature  is 
consequently  doubtful,  and  great  naturalists,  such  as  Pallas  and 
others,  have  considered  them  as  plants;  others,  however,  consider 
them  as  having  very  small  cells,  and  as  being  inhabited  by  coralli- 
ferous  Polypi.  In  this  case  they  belong  to  the  present  order. 
Those,  in  which  the  interior  is  filled  with  corneous  threads,  still 
present  some  analogy  to  the  Ceratophyta.     In  the 

COKALLINA,  Lin. 
We  observe  articulated  stems  placed  on  species  of  roots,  and  divided  into 
branches,  also  articulated,  on  the  surface  of  wluch  no  pores  can  be  seen, 
and  in  which  no  Polypi  have  hitherto  been  discovered. 

C.  officinalis^  L.  The  bottom  of  the  sea  on  certain  coasts  is  completely 
covered  with  this  coral,  the  joints  of  which  are  ob oval  and  the  ramusculi 
arranged  like  pinnate  leaves,  bearing  other  branches  similarly  disposed. 
It  is  white,  reddish,  or  greenish.  It  was  formerly  employed  in  pharmacy 
on  account  of  its  calcareous  nature. 

Of  all  these  productions  without  apparent  Polypi,  which  are  conjectur- 
ally  referred  to  the  Coralliferi,  few  are  more  singular  than  the  Acetabula,  or 

Acetabulum,  Lam. 
Where  we  find  a  slender  and  hollow  stem  supporting  a  round  tliin  plate, 
like  a  parasol,  with  radiating  stria:,  crenulated  at  the  edge  and  having  a  lit- 
tle smooth  disk  sun-ounded  with  pores  in  the  centre.  No  Polypi  can  be 
discovered  in  them.  The  rays  of  the  disk  are  hollow  and  contain  greenish 
granules,  a  circumstance  which  led  Cavolini  to  consider  them  as  plants. 
One  of  them — Tubularia  acetabulum,  Gm.,  is  found  in  the  Mediterranean. 


518  POLYPI. 

FAMILY   III. 
CORTICATL 

This  family  comprises  genera  in  which  all  the  Polypi  are  con- 
nected by  a  common,  thick,  fleshy  or  gelatinous  substance,  in  the 
cavities  of  which  they  are  received,  and  which  envelopes  an  axis 
varying  in  form  and  substance.  The  Polypi  of  those  that  have  been 
observed  are  somewhat  more  complex  than  the  preceding  ones  and 
approximate  more  closely  to  the  Actinae,  Internally  we  observe  a 
stomach  from  which  eight  intestines  originate,  two  that  are  pro- 
longed into  the  common  mass,  and  two  that  are  shorter,,and  seem 
to  supply  the  place  of  ovaries. 

They  are  subdivided  into  four  tribes.  In  the  first,  or  the  Ceea- 
TOPHYTA,  the  internal  axis  has  the  appearance  of  wood  or  horn, 
and  is  fixed.  Two  genera  of  them  are  known,  and  both  extremely 
numerous. 

Antipathes,  Lin. 

Commonly  termed  Black  Coral,  where  the  ramous  and  ligneous-like  sub- 
stance of  the  axis  is  enveloped  v/ith  a  bark  so  soft,  that  it  becomes  destroy- 
ed after  death,  when  it  resembles  branches  of  dry  wood,  &c. 

GOEGONIA,  L. 
Where,  on  the  contrary,  this  horny  or  ligneous  substance   of  the  axis  is 
enveloped  by  a  bark,  the  thickness  of  which  is  so  penetrated  by  calcareous 
granules,  that  it  dries  on  the  axis,  retaining  its  colours,  wliich  arc  frequently 
extremely  vivid  and  beautiful;  it  is  soluble  in  acids. 

In  the  second  tribe,  that  of  the  Litiiophyta,  the  internal  axis 
is  of  a  strong  substance  and  fixed.     In 

Isis,  Lin. 
This  axis  is  ramous,  and  has  no  cells  or  cavities  on  its  surface .     The  ani- 
mal bai-k  which  envelopes  it  is  mixed  with  calcareous  granules,   as  in  the 
Gorgoniae. 

Madrepoea,  Lin. 
The  stony  portion  of  Madrepores  is  either  ramous,  or  forms  rounded  mosses, 
or  leaves,  but  is  always  furnished  with  lamellje  vvrhich  unite  concentrically  in 
points  where  they  represent  stars,  or  which  terminate  in  lines  more  or  less 
serpentine.     While  alive,  this  stony  portion  is  covered  with  a  living  bark. 


CORALLIFERI.  519 

soft,  gelatinous,  and  completely  covered  with  rosettes  of  tentacula  which 
are  the  Polypi  or  rather  the  Actiniae,  for  they  usually  have  several  circles 
of  tentacula,  and  the  lamella  of  the  stars  correspond  in  some  respects  to  the 
membranous  laminae  of  the  body  of  the  Actiniae.  The  bark  and  Polypi 
contract  on  the  slightest  touch. 

MiLLEPORA,  Lin. 
Here  the  stony  portion  is  extremely  various  in  form,   and  the  surface 
merely  marked  with  little  holes  or  pores,  or  even  without  any  apparent  ori- 
fices. 

In  the  third  tribe,  or  the  Natantes,  the  axis  is  stony  but  not 
fixed. 

Pennatula,  Lin. 

A  common  body,  free  from  all  adhesion,  of  a  regular  and  constant  form, 
and  susceptible  of  locomotion  by  the  contractions  of  its  fleshy  portion  and 
the  combined  action  of  its  Polypi.  This  body  is  fleshy,  and  contracts  or 
dilates  in  its  various  parts  by  means  of  the  fibrous  layers  that  enter  into  its 
composition;'  its  axis  encloses  a  simple  stony  stem;  the  Polypi  have  gene- 
rally eight  dentated  arms.  Most  of  the  species  diffuse  a  vivid  phospho- 
rescent light. 

The  Pennatulae,  properly  so  called,  have  given  their  name  to  the  whole 
genus,  which  name  has  been  derived  from  their  own  resemblance  to  a 
quill.  The  portion  destitute  of  Polypi  is  cylindrical,  and  terminates  in  an 
obtuse  point.  The  other  part  is  furnished  on  each  side  with  wings  or 
laminae,  more  or  less  long  and  broad,  supported  by  spines  or  rigid  setae 
which  arise  from  their  interior  and  roughen  one  of  their  edges,  without, 
however,  being  articulated  with  the  stony  stem  of  the  axis;  it  is  from  be- 
tween their  laminae  that  the  Polypi  protrude.] 

Small,  porous  and  stony  bodies,  which  nuturalists  have  thought 
may  be  approximated  to  the  Millepora,  are  found  among  fossils  and 
in  the  ocean.  If  they  were  enveloped  by  a  rind  of  bark  containing 
Polypi,  they  would  be  movable  CoraUiferi,  and  should  rather  be 
placed  near  the  Pennatulae.     Such  are  the 

OvuiiTEs,  Lam.,  which  have  the  form  of  eggs,  hollow,  and  frequently 
perforated  at  both  ends:  the  Ltjnulites,  which  are  orbicular,  convex,  stri- 
ated, and  porous  on  one  side,  and  concave  on  the  other:  and  the  Okbulites, 
that  are  orbicular,  flat,  or  concave,  porous  on  both  sides  or  on  the  edges. 
If  the  DACTrLOPOHA  be  free,  as  in  the  opinion  of  Lamarck,  it  will  also  be- 
long to  this  subdivision;  it  is  a  hollow  ovoid,  open  at  both  ends,  and  witli 
two  envelopes,  both  perforated  by  meshes  like  the  Retepora. 


520  POLYPI. 

In  the  fourth  tribe  the  animal  rind  or  bark  encloses  a  mere  fleshy 
substance  without  an  axis  either  osseous  or  horny.     In 

Alcyonitjm,  Lin. 

As  in  the  Pennatuls,  we  observe  Polypi  with  eight  denticulated  arms,  and 
intestines  prolonged  into  the  common  mass  of  the  ovaries:  but  this  mass  is 
not  supported  by  an  osseous  axis;  it  is  always  fixed  to  the  body;  and  where 
it  is  drawn  out  into  trunks  and  branches,  nothing  is  found  internally,  but  a 
gelatinous  substance  traversed  by  numerous  canals  surroimded  with  fibrous 
membranes.  The  bark  is  harder  and  excavated  by  cells,  into  which  the 
Polypi  withdraw  more  or  less  entirely. 

After  the  Alcyonia  are  also  placed  the 

Spongia,  Lin. 
Or  Sponges;  marine,  fibrous  bodies,  whose  only  sensible  portion  appears  to 
be  a  sort  of  tenuous  gelatine  which  dries  oil",  scarcely  leaving  a  trace  of  it, 
and  in  which  neither  Polypi  nor  other  moving  parts  have  yet  been  disco- 
vered. Living  Sponges  are  said  to  exhibit  a  sort  of  tremulousness  or  con- 
traction wh  en  they  are  touched;  It  is  also  affirmed  that  the  pores,  with  their 
superficies,  are  perforated,  and  present  a  sort  of  palpitation;  the  existence 
of  these  motions,  however,  is  contested  by  M.  Grant. 

Sponges  assume  innumerable  shapes,  each  according  to  its  species,  and 
resemble  shrubs,  horns,  vases,  tubes,  globes,  fans,  &c. 

Every  one  knows  the  S.  officinalis,  or  common  Sponge,  which  is  found 
in  large  brown  masses,  formed  of  extremely  fine,  flexible,  and  elastic  fibres, 
perforated  with  numerous  pores  and  little  irregular  canals,  all  of  which  in- 
tercommunicate. 


CLASS  V. 


INFUSORIA. 

Naturalists  usually  close  the  catalogue  of  the  animal  kingdom 
with  beings  so  extremely  minute  as  to  be  invisible  to  the  naked  eye, 
and  which  have  only  been  discovered  since  the  invention  of  the  mi- 
croscope has  unveiled  to  us,  as  it  were,  a  new  world.  Most  of 
them  present  a  gelatinous  body  of  the  greatest  simplicity,  and  for 
these,  this  is  undoubtedly  the  situation;  but  authors  have  placed 


INFUSORIA.  521 

among  the  Infusoria,  animals  apparently  much  more  complicated, 
and  which  only  resemble  them  in  their  minuteness,  and  the  dwelling 
in  which  they  are  usually  found. 

They  will  constitute  our  first  order,  though  we  must  still  insist 
upon  the  doubts  relative  to  their  organization,  which  are  not  yet  dis- 
sipated. 


.     ORDER  I. 

ROTIFERA.(l) 

The  Rotifera  are  distinguished  by  a  greater  degree  of  complica- 
tion. Their  body  is  oval  and  gelatinous;  we  can  distinguish  in  it  a 
mouth,  a  stomach,  and  an  intestine.  It  most  commonly  terminates 
posteriorly  in  a  tail  that  is  variously  constructed,  and  anteriorly  it 
bears  a  singular  organ,  variously  lobate,  with  denticulated  edges,  and 
of  which  the  denticulations  vibrate  successively  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  give  the  organ  itself  the  appearance  of  one  or  more  dentated  and 
revolving  wheels.  One  or  two  prominences  on  the  neck  have  even 
appeared  to  some  observers  to  be  furnished  with  eyes.  This  re- 
volving organ  does  not  serve  to  direct  their  aliment  to  the  mouth;  it 
may  be  supposed  to  have  some  connexion  with  the  function  of  res- 
piration.    In 

FuRcuLAKiA,  Lam. 

The  body  is  unarmed;  the  tail  is  composed  of  articulations  which  enter  one 
into  the  other,  and  is  terminated  by  two  threads. 

It  is  on  one  of  these — the  Furcularia  or  Motif  ere  des  toits — that  Spallanzani 
performed  his  famous  experiments.  Covered  with  dust  in  the  spouts  on 
the  roofs  of  houses  it  becomes  desiccated,  and  after  remaining  in  that  state 
for  several  weeks,  reacquires  life  and  motion  on  being  humected  with  a  lit- 
tle water. 

There  are  two  other  genera,  viz.  Tubicolaria  and  Brachionus. 


(1)  Wheel-bearers. 
3  Q 


522  INFUSORIA. 

ORDER  II. 
HOMOGENEA. 

The  body  of  the  Honiogenea  presents  neither  viscera  nor  other 
complication,  and  is  frequently  destitute  of  even  the  appearance  of 
a  mouth. 

The  first  tribe  comprises  those  which,  with  a  gelatinous  body 
more  or  less  contractile  in  its  different  parts,  still  present  external 
organs  consisting  of  cilia  more  or  less  strong. 

When  they  have  the  form  of  a  horn,  (cornet),  from  which  the  cilia  issue 
as  in  the  Polypi  called  Vbrticellse,  we  have  the  Ureolaria:  when  the 
body  is  flat,  and  these  cilia  are  at  one  extremity,  Trickoda:  when  they 
surround  the  whole  body,  Leucophra:  when  some  of  them  are  stout, 
and  represent  species  of  horns,  Kerona:  and  when  these  pretended 
horns  are  elongated  into  threads,  Himantopes. 

The  second  tribe  consists  of  those  which  exhibit  no  external  or- 
gan whatever,  if  we  except  a  tail.     In 

Cercaria,  Mull. 
The  oval  body  is  in  fact  terminated  by  a  thread. 

Vibrio,  Mull. 
Where  the  body  is  round  and  slender  like  a  bit  of  thread. 

It  is  to  this  genus  that  belong  the 

V.  glutlnis  et  aceii,  or  the  pretended  Eels  that  are  seen  in  vinegar  and 
paste.  Those  that  inhabit  the  former  are  frequently  perceptible  to  the  naked 
eye.  It  is  asserted  that  they  change  their  skin,  consist  of  two  sexes,  pro- 
duce living  young  ones  in  summer,  and  eggs  in  autumn.  Freezing  will  not 
kill  them.     The  others  make  their  appearance  in  diluted  paste. 

In  Enchelis,  Mull,  the  body  is  softer,  oblong,  and  less  determined  than  that 
of  a  Vibrio.  In  CycUdium  it  is  flat  and  oval.  In  Paramecium  it  is  flat  and 
oblong.  In  Kolpoda  it  is  flat  and  sinuous.  In  Gonium  it  is  flat  and  angular, 
and  in  Bursaria  hollow  like  a  sac.  The  most  singular  genus  of  the  whole 
is  the 

Proteus,  Lin. 

No  determinate  form  can  be  assigned  to  them;  their  figure  changes  every 
instant,  and  is  sometimes  rounded,  sometimes  divided  and  subdivided  into 
thongs,  in  the  most  odd  and  singular  manner. 


HOMOGENEA.  523 

MONAS,  Mull. 

The  Monades,  viewed  under  the  microscope,  resemble  points  moving  with 
great  rapidity,  although  destitute  of  any  apparent  organ  of  motion. 

VoLVOX. 
A  globular  body  revolving  on  its  r.xis  and  frequently  containing  smaller 
globules,  which  are  doubtless  the  continuation  of  the  race. 


THE  END. 


SYSTEMATIC   INDEX. 


Introdcction, 

9 

Seals, 

80 

Distribution   ot  the  Ammal 

The  Morse, 

82 

Kingdom, 

33 

Opossums, 

83 

VERTEBRA TA,  OR  VERTE- 

Phalangers, 

86 

BRATED  ANIMALS, 

Z7 

Potoroos, 

87 

Majimaiia, 

41 

Kanguroos, 

87 

Man, 

45 

Squirrels, 

91 

Monkeys, 

54 

The  Aye-Aye, 

91 

Bats, 

62 

Marmots, 

92 

Hedge-hogs, 

64 

Rats, 

94 

Shrews, 

65 

Jerboas, 

96 

Desmans, 

65 

Jumping-Hares, 

97 

Moles, 

67 

Rat  Moles, 

97 

Bears, 

68 

The  Beaver, 

98 

Raccoons, 

69 

The  Couia, 

99 

Coatis, 

70 

Porcupines, 

99 

Badgers, 

70 

Hares, 

100 

Gluttons, 

70 

Guinea  Pig, 

101 

Weasels, 

72 

Sloths, 

103 

Polecats, 

72 

Megatherium, 

103 

Otters, 

73 

Armadillos, 

103 

The  Dog, 

74 

Ant-Eaters, 

104 

The  Wolf, 

75 

Echidnae, 

105 

The  Jackal, 

75 

Omithorhynci, 

106 

Foxes, 

75 

The  Elephant, 

107 

Civets, 

76 

The  Mammoth, 

107 

Genets, 

76 

Hippopotamus, 

108 

The  Mangouste, 

77 

The  Hog, 

108 

Hyaenas, 

77 

Jlnoplotherium, 

109 

Cats, 

78 

Rhinoceros, 

109 

The  Lion, 

78 

Damans, 

109 

Tiger, 

78 

PalaEotheriuin, 

109 

Panther, 

79 

The  Tapir, 

110 

Lynx, 

79 

Horses, 

110 

526 


SYSTEMATIC  INDEX. 


Camels, 

111 

Birds  of  Paradise, 

141 

The  Musk, 

112 

Nutliatches, 

142 

The  Stags, 

113 

Creepers, 

142 

The  Giraffe, 

113 

Hummingbirds 

142 

Antelopes, 

114 

Hoopoes, 

142 

Goats, 

114 

Bee-eaters, 

143 

Sheep, 

114 

Mot-mots, 

143 

The  Ox, 

115 

Kingfishers, 

143 

Manati, 

116 

Todies, 

143 

Dugong, 

117 

Hornbills, 

143 

Dolphins, 

119 

Jacamars, 

144 

Porpoises, 

119 

Woodpeckers, 

144 

The  Narwhal, 

119 

Wrynecks, 

145 

Cachalots, 

119 

Cuckoos, 

145 

The  Whale, 

120 

Barbets, 

145 

Toucans, 

146 

OVIPAllOUS  VERTEBRATA 

,  120 

Parrots, 

146 

BiBSS, 

121 

Touracos, 

147 

Vultures, 

127 

Plaintain- eaters, 

147 

Falcons, 

127 

Hoccos, 

148 

Eagles, 

129 

Peacocks, 

148 

Hawks, 

129 

Turkeys, 

148 

Buzzards, 

129 

Guinea-fowls, 

149 

Owls, 

131 

Pheasants, 

149 

Shrikes, 

132 

Grouse, 

149 

Fly-catchers, 

132 

Partridges, 

150 

Crown-Birds, 

132 

Quails, 

150 

Tanagers, 

133 

Tinamous, 

150 

Thrushes, 

133 

Pigeons, 

150 

Ant-catchers, 

133 

Ostriches, 

•*        152 

Orioles, 

134 

Cassowaries, 

153 

Warblers, 

135 

Bustards, 

154 

Manakins, 

135 

Plovers, 

154 

Swallows, 

136 

Lapwings, 

154 

Larks, 

137 

Oyster-catchers, 

155 

Titmouse, 

138 

Cranes, 

155 

Buntings, 

138 

The  Sun  Bird, 

156 

Sparrows, 

138 

The  Boat-bill, 

157 

Crossbills, 

138 

Herons, 

157 

Colies, 

139 

Storks, 

157 

Beef-eaters, 

139 

Jabirus, 

157 

Starlings, 

139 

Umbres, 

157 

Crows, 

140 

Wood-Pelicans, 

158 

Magpie, 

140 

Spoonbills, 

158 

Jays, 

140 

The  Ibis, 

159 

Nutcrackers, 

141 

Curlews, 

159 

Rollers, 

141 

Snipes, 

159 

SYSTEMATIC  INDEX. 


527 


Godwits, 

159 

Serpents, 

187 

Sandpipers, 

160 

Batrachians,   (Frogs, 

Sala- 

Ruffs, 

160 

manders,  &cj 

193 

Turnstones, 

161 

Fishes, 

197 

Avosets, 

161 

Perches, 

200 

Jacanas, 

162 

Gurnards, 

203 

Kamichi, 

162 

Flying-fishes, 

203 

Rails, 

163 

Stickle-backs, 

204 

Coots, 

163 

Scienoides, 

205 

Sheath  bills. 

164 

Sparoides, 

206 

Pratincoles, 

164 

Mackerels, 

209 

Flamingoes, 

165 

Tunnies, 

209 

Divers, 

166 

Swordfish, 

210 

Guillemots, 

167 

Pilot-fish, 

210 

Auks, 

167 

Tsenioides, 

211 

Puffins, 

167 

Theutyes, 

212 

Penguins, 

167 

MiUlets, 

214 

Gorfus, 

168 

Blennies, 

214 

Petrels, 

168 

Gobies, 

215 

The  Albatross, 

169 

The  Angler, 

216 

GuUs, 

169 

Tautog, 

217 

Terns, 

170 

Fistularidx, 

218 

Noddies, 

170 

Carps, 

219 

Skimmers, 

170 

Pikes, 

220 

Pelicans, 

171 

Flying-fishes, 

221 

Cormorants, 

171 

Catfish, 

222 

Frigate-Birds, 

171 

The  Salmon, 

223 

Boobies, 

172 

Herrings, 

224 

Darters, 

172 

The  Shad, 

225 

Tropic  Birds, 

172 

The  Cod, 

226 

Swans, 

173 

Flat-fishes, 

226 

Geese, 

173 

Discoboli, 

227 

Ducks, 

174 

Eels, 

228 

Mergansers, 

175 

Sea-Horse, 

232 

Reptiles, 

175 

Gymnodontes, 

232 

Tortoises, 

177 

Paddle-fish, 

236 

Crocodiles, 

180 

Chimera, 

237 

lizards, 

181 

Sharks, 

238 

Aganeae, 

182 

Angelfish, 

239 

Dragons, 

183 

Saw-fish, 

239 

Iguana, 

184 

Rays, 

240 

Mosasaurus, 

184 

The  Torpedo, 

240 

Geckos, 

184 

Lampreys, 

241 

Chamelaeons, 

185 

Myxine, 

241 

Scincoideans, 

186 

528 


SYSTEMATIC  INDEX. 


MOLLUSCA, 

243 

Pileolus, 

263 

Cephalopoda, 

246 

Navicella, 

263 

Cuttle-fish, 

247- 

Calyptraea, 

263 

Nautilus, 

247 

Siphonaria, 

264 

Bekmnites, 

248 

Sigaretus, 

264 

Ammonites, 

248 

Cryptostoma, 

264 

NummuUtes, 

248 

Conus, 

265 

Ptehopoda, 

249 

Cypraea, 

265 

Clio, 

249 

Ovula, 

265 

Cymbula, 

249 

Terebellum, 

265 

Limacina, 

249 

Voluta, 

265 

Gastehopoba, 

250 

Oliva, 

266 

Slugs, 

252 

Buccinum, 

266 

Snails, 

252 

Ceritliiuin, 

267 

Planorbis, 

253 

Murex, 

267 

Lymnaeus, 

253 

Strombus, 

268 

Physa, 

253 

Vermetus, 

268 

Auricula, 

253 

Magilus, 

269 

Conovulus, 

253 

Siliquarla, 

269 

Doris, 

254 

Halyotis, 

269 

Tritonia, 

255 

Fissurella, 

270 

Thethys, 

255 

Patella, 

270 

Scyllsea, 

255 

Chiton, 

270 

Glaucus, 

255 

ACEPHAIA, 

271 

Phyllidia, 

255 

Acarda, 

272 

Pleurobranchus, 

256 

Ostrea, 

273 

Aplysia, 

256 

Pecten, 

273 

Dolabella, 

257 

Lima, 

273 

Notarchus, 

257 

Anomia, 

274 

Akera, 

257 

Placuna, 

274 

Gastropteron, 

258 

Spondylus, 

274 

Umbrella, 

258 

Malleus, 

274 

Trochus, 

260 

Vulsella, 

275 

Turbo, 

260 

Perna, 

275 

Paludina, 

261 

Etheria, 

275 

Littorina, 

261 

Avicula, 

275 

Phasianella, 

261 

Pinna, 

275 

AmpuUaria, 

261 

Area, 

276 

Melania, 

261 

Trigonia, 

276 

Tornatella, 

262 

Mytilus,  (Muscles) 

276 

Pyramidella, 

262 

Anodontea, 

277 

Janthina, 

262 

Unio, 

277 

Nerita, 

262 

Cardita, 

277 

Pileopsis, 

263 

Cypricardia, 

277 

Hipponyx, 

263 

Coralliophaga, 

278 

Crepidula, 

263 

Venericardia, 

278 

SYSTEMATIC  INDEX. 


529 


Crassatella, 
Chama, 
Tridacna, 
Cardium, 
Donax, 
Cyclas, 
Corbis, 
Tellina, 
Lucina, 
Venus, 
'  Mya, 
Byssomia, 
Hiatella, 
Solen, 
Pholas, 
Teredo, 
Fistulana, 
Teredina, 
Clavag-ella, 
Aspergillum, 
Biphora, 
Ascidia, 
Botryllus, 
Pyrosoma, 
Polyclinum, 
Bbacbiofoda, 
Lingula, 
Terebratula, 
Orbicula, 

CiRRHOPOSA, 

Anatifa, 
Balanus, 

ARTICULATA, 

Annuxata, 
Serpula, 
Sabella, 
Terebella, 
Amphitrite, 
Syphostoma, 
Dentalium, 
Arenicola, 
Amphinome, 
Eunice, 
Nereis, 
Alciopa, 
3   R 


278 

Spio, 

298 

278 

Lutnbrinera, 

298 

278 

Ophelina, 

299- 

279 

Cirrhatulus, 

299 

279 

Palmyra, 

299 

280 

Aphrodita, 

299 

280 

Chsetopterus, 

300 

280 

Lumbricus,  (Earth  Worms] 

1  301 

280 

Nais, 

301 

280 

Climena, 

301 

281 

Hirudo,  (Leeches) 

302 

281 

Gordius, 

303 

281 

CRtrSTACEA, 

305 

281 

Crabs, 

308 

282 

Lobsters, 

310 

282 

Shrimps, 

310 

282 

Prawns, 

310 

283 

SqulUa, 

311 

283 

Phyllosoma, 

312 

283 

Gammai'us, 

314 

284 

Cyamus, 

315 

284 

Oniscus, 

316 

285 

Monoculus, 

318 

285 

Limulus,  (King-crab) 

319 

286 

Argula, 

319 

286 

Cahgus, 

319 

286 

Nicothoe, 

320 

286 

Trilobites, 

320 

287 

Arachnides, 

321 

288 

Spiders, 

323 

288 

Tarantula, 

333 

288 

Scorpio, 

334 

Galeodes, 

336 

290 

Chelifer, 

336 

293 

Pycnogonides, 

336 

295 

Phalangium, 

338 

295 

Acarus,  (Mites) 

339 

295 

Ticks, 

340 

295 

IxsECTA,  OR  Insects, 

340 

296 

Myriapoda, 

352 

296 

lulus, 

555 

296 

Scolopendra, 

356 

29- 

Lepisma, 

357 

297 

Podura, 

357 

297 

Lice, 

358 

298 

Fleas, 

359 

530 


SYSTEMATIC    INDEX. 


Coleoptera, 

360 

Bruchus, 

406 

Cicindela, 

363 

Attelabus, 

406 

Carabus, 

363 

Brentus, 

406 

Dytiscus, 

367 

Brachycerus, 

407 

Gyrinus, 

368 

Ciirculio, 

407 

Staphyllnus, 

369 

Lixus, 

407 

Buprestis, 

571 

Rhynchaenus, 

407 

Elater, 

372 

Calandra, 

408 

Cebrio, 

373 

Scolytus, 

409 

Fire-flies, 

374 

Paussus, 

409 

Melyris, 

375 

Bostrichus, 

409 

Clems, 

376 

Monotoma, 

410 

Ptinus, 

377 

Lyctus, 

410 

Lymexylon, 

378 

Mycetophagus, 

410 

Mastigus, 

379 

Trog-osita, 

410 

Hister, 

380 

Cucujus, 

410 

Silpha, 

380 

Prionii, 

412 

Nitidula, 

382 

Cerambycini, 

413 

Dacne, 

383 

Lamiarise, 

414 

Dermestes, 

384 

Lepturetse, 

415 

Byrrhus, 

385 

Sagra, 

416 

Heterocerus, 

385 

Crioceris, 

417 

Dryops, 

385 

Hispa, 

418 

Hydrophilus, 

386 

Cassida, 

418 

Sphaeridium, 

387 

Cyptocephalus, 

419 

Scarabxides, 

389 

Chiysomela, 

419 

Goldbeaters, 

392 

Galeruca, 

419 

Stag--Beetle, 

393 

Altica, 

420 

Passalus, 

394 

Erotylus, 

420 

Pimelia, 

395 

Eumorphus, 

421 

Blaps, 

395 

Lady-bug, 

422 

Tenebrio, 

396 

Clypeaster, 

422 

Diaperis, 

397 

Pselaphus, 

423 

Cossyphus, 

398 

Claviger, 

423 

Helops, 

399 

Orthoptera, 

423 

Cistela, 

399 

Ear-wigs, 

424 

Dircsea, 

400 

Cock-roaches, 

424 

CEdemera, 

401 

Mantis, 

425 

Mycterus, 

401 

Grasshoppers,  &c. 

426 

Lagria, 

402 

Crickets, 

426 

Pyrochroa, 

403 

Hemiptera, 

427 

Mordella, 

403 

Cimex, 

428 

Notoxus, 

403 

-  Bed-bug,  Sec. 

428 

Horia, 

■   404 

Aquatic  Scorpions, 

429 

Meloe, 

404 

Nepa, 

429 

Spanish  Fly,  &.c. 

405 

Notonecta, 

430 

SYSTEMATIC    INDEX, 


531 


Cicada, 

430 

Pseudo-Bombyces, 

473 

Locusts, 

430 

Aposura, 

473 

Fulgora, 

432 

Noctuslites, 

474 

Cicadella, 

432 

Geometrjc, 

474 

Psylla, 

433 

Deltoides, 

475 

Thrips, 

433 

Tineites, 

475 

Aphis, 

433 

Fissipennes 

477 

Galllnsects, 

434 

Rhipiptera, 

477 

Cochineal, 

435 

Styiops, 

479 

Neuroptera, 

.     435 

Xenos, 

479 

Dragon  Flies, 

437 

Diptera, 

479 

Ephemera, 

438 

Musquetoes, 

482 

Panorpa, 

439 

Crane-flies, 

483 

Lion-Ant, 

440 

Asilus, 

484 

Hemerobius, 

441 

Empis, 

485 

Semblis, 

441 

Cyrtus, 

485 

Mantispa, 

442 

Bombylius, 

485 

Rhaphidia, 

442 

Anthrax, 

485 

Termes, 

442 

Thereva, 

486 

Psocus, 

443 

Leptis, 

486 

Peria, 

444 

Dolichopus, 

487 

Phryg-anea, 

444 

Horse-flies, 

487 

Hymenoptera, 

445 

Mydas, 

489 

Saw-flies, 

447 

Xylophagus, 

490 

Sirex, 

448 

Stratiomys, 

490 

Fcenus, 

449 

Syrphus, 

492 

Ichneumon, 

450 

CEstrus, 

492 

Cynlps, 

451 

Conops, 

.  493 

Chalcis, 

452 

Flies, 

494 

Bethylus, 

453 

Hippobosca, 

496 

Chrysis, 

453 

Nycteribia, 

496 

Ants, 

455 

Mutilla, 

457 

RADIATA, 

497 

Sphex, 

457 

ECUINODEIIMATA, 

498 

Masaris, 

458 

Starfish, 

499 

Wasps, 

459 

Sea- Urchins, 

499 

Bees, 

460 

Holothuria, 

500 

Lepidoptera, 

465 

Molpadia, 

502 

Papilio, 

468 

Minyas, 

502 

Hesperia, 

469 

Sipunculus, 

502 

Urania, 

469 

Bonellia, 

503 

Spliinx, 

470 

Ektozoa, 

503 

Sesia, 

471 

Filaria, 

504 

Zygzena, 

471 

Trichocephalus, 

504 

Moths, 

472 

Cucullanus, 

SOS 

Hepialitcs, 

472 

Ophiostoma, 

SOS 

532 


SYSTEMATIC  INDEX. 


Ascaris, 

505 

Flustra, 

516 

Strongyliis, 

506 

Cellepora, 

517 

Lernea, 

506 

Tubulipora, 

517 

Echinorhynchus, 

5or 

Coralllna, 

517 

Fasciola, 

508 

Acetabulum, 

518 

Tape  woi-m, 

508 

Black  coral. 

518 

Hydatids, 

509 

Gorgonia, 

518 

Lig-ula, 

509 

Isis, 

518 

Sea-Nettles, 

510 

Madrepores, 

518 

Medusa, 

510 

Millepora, 

519 

Porpita, 

511 

Pennatula, 

519 

Velella, 

511 

Alcyonium, 

520 

Pliysalia, 

512 

Sponges, 

520 

Diphyes, 

512 

Infusoria, 

523 

POITPI, 

513 

Furcularia, 

521 

Actinia, 

514 

Tubicolaria, 

521 

Lucernaria, 

514 

Brachionus, 

521 

Hydra, 

514 

Cercaria, 

522 

Vorticella, 

515 

Vibrio, 

522 

Tubipora, 

516 

Proteus, 

522 

Tubularia, 

516 

Monas, 

523 

Sertularia, 

516 

Volvox, 

523 

Cellularia, 

516 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS-URBANA 

590C981832  cOOl 

THE  ANIMAL  KINGDOM,  ARRANGED  IN  CONFORMI 


i 


3  0112  009999332 


iilis 


